tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-67014204281670314902024-03-18T15:40:08.685+00:00Philosophical InvestigationsRemarks on a close reading of Wittgenstein's posthumous masterpiece. If philosophy is therapy then here's mine.Philip Cartwrighthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11458571502536123264noreply@blogger.comBlogger41125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6701420428167031490.post-20214674922913240942022-05-21T10:08:00.003+01:002022-05-22T06:24:27.424+01:00The Private Language Argument IV: Sensations, Grammar and Samples. §§256-271<p> <span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" color="windowtext" data-contrast="auto" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-ligatures: none; font-weight: bold; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text; white-space: pre-wrap;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Introduction</span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" color="windowtext" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></p><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{17c62c28-cb7e-47f7-8edb-19bb27f7f26d}{197}" paraid="1677299171" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-ligatures: none; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">In </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">§§246-250 Wittgenstein considers pain in relation to <a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.com/2021/09/the-private-language-argument-ii-pain.html" target="_blank">knowledge</a>, and in §253 he invites us to untangle the conceptual confusion involved in treating pain as a kind of <a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.com/2021/09/the-private-language-argument-iii-pain.html" target="_blank">possession</a>. Both passages aim to undermine the notion that sensations represent “inner objects” – akin to physical objects, but existing in the mind rather than the outside world.</span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{17c62c28-cb7e-47f7-8edb-19bb27f7f26d}{197}" paraid="1677299171" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{17c62c28-cb7e-47f7-8edb-19bb27f7f26d}{205}" paraid="1492469013" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">We don’t have pains in the sense that we possess them; we suffer them. As such, they are not objects of knowledge for us. I can be wrong about which objects I possess, and if I’m unsure I can find out by doing an inventory. Then I’ll </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">know</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> which things I possess and which I don’t. None of this applies to a sensation like pain. The question “How do you know you’re in pain?” makes no sense.</span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{17c62c28-cb7e-47f7-8edb-19bb27f7f26d}{205}" paraid="1492469013" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{17c62c28-cb7e-47f7-8edb-19bb27f7f26d}{215}" paraid="1433448624" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Note, however, that if we model our sensation-language on the analogy of physical objects, the question becomes valid. Now if someone says they’re in pain we can legitimately ask whether they might be mistaken. “I’m in pain” is no longer an </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">expression</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> of pain; it is a </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">description</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> or </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">assertion</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">, logically on a par with (eg) “I’m in London”. As such, it stands in need of justification. On what grounds do I claim to be in pain (or in London)? So yet again we are confronted with the issue of </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">correctness</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">.</span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{17c62c28-cb7e-47f7-8edb-19bb27f7f26d}{237}" paraid="365964563" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">In §§256-271 Wittgenstein weaves these insights into a broader attack on the notion of a private language. We might distinguish four related strands:</span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="ListContainerWrapper SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-align: left; user-select: text;"><ol style="text-align: left;"><li><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text; white-space: pre-wrap;" xml:lang="EN-GB">The incoherence of pain considered as conceptually distinct from its characteristic expressions.</span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></li><li><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text; white-space: pre-wrap;" xml:lang="EN-GB">The resulting redundancy or sham nature of the private language.</span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></li><li><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text; white-space: pre-wrap;" xml:lang="EN-GB">The inadequacy of ostensive definition as the private language’s foundation.</span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></li><li><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text; white-space: pre-wrap;" xml:lang="EN-GB">The inadequacy of sensations (or the memory of sensations) as definitional samples.</span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></li></ol></div></div><div class="SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{16}" paraid="99828124" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Under this onslaught, the private language is revealed as an incoherent parody. Not only can it not be understood by other people; it can’t be understood by the speaker himself – for there is nothing to understand.</span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{22}" paraid="1444353809" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"></span></span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{26}" paraid="464104609" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: bold; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Pain and its Expression</span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{26}" paraid="464104609" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{32}" paraid="1585749357" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">§§256-258 set out the <a href="https://lwpi.blogspot.com/2021/08/setting-up-private-language-argument.html" target="_blank">key features</a> of the private language. It is a language in which sensation-words are not tied up with the natural expression of sensations. They just name the sensations themselves. Indeed, it is helpful when imagining this to do away with the physical expression of sensations altogether (§257). There are merely sensations, which are named, and these names are strung together to form descriptions of our inner lives. </span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{32}" paraid="1585749357" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{38}" paraid="2077184803" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">This disassociation of pain and its expression is a crucial step. It’s what would allow the private language to be </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">radically</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> private. The words of such a language could not be further defined, or explained to anyone else (§258), and it would be impossible for other people to figure out what they meant. As such, of course, they couldn’t be taught either, but that’s beside the point; the private linguist will simply have to teach himself (§257). The result will be a language whose meaning owes nothing to its </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">use – </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">for it </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">has</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> no use.</span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{38}" paraid="2077184803" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{56}" paraid="170602164" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">For Wittgenstein, however, this is not so much a crucial step as a crucial </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">mis</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">step. It gives a distorted picture of the concept “pain”. For we do not learn that word through an act of introspection; it is given as an extension of our natural pain behaviour (§244). Nor do we learn to deduce or hypothesise pain in others from their behaviour (there </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">is</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> such a thing, but that comes later). We are taught “look, she’s in pain!”, not “she’s behaving in a way that suggests she’s in pain”. As such, the expression of pain is built into the concept from the very beginning. Pain and its expression go together not as a kind of happy accident, but as a logically interwoven whole. </span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{56}" paraid="170602164" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{70}" paraid="1039699903" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">How coherent is it, then, to completely disassociate the two? On the face of it, this doesn’t seem to be a problem: there can be pain without pain behaviour, and pain behaviour without pain. What could be clearer than that? But such distinctions are secondary rather than fundamental. They only make sense within a broader framework of pain as something which is naturally expressed. For how would it be if pain was </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">never</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> expressed – if people behaved quite normally, but occasionally said “I’m in pain”? What on earth would the word “pain” </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">mean</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> in such a context? If someone walked around for week after week with all the outward signs of good health but swore sincerely that every step was complete agony, then we would have to conclude they didn’t know what the word “agony” meant. And if I imagine myself saying “my shoulder is painfully sore, but I can move it with complete freedom” then I don’t even understand my </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">own</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> words.</span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{70}" paraid="1039699903" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{88}" paraid="140580646" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Does this mean that there’s no such thing as pain without pain behaviour? Wittgenstein raises the question in §281, and for once gives a clear answer: “only of a living human being and what resembles (behaves like) a living human being can one say: it has sensations; it sees; is blind; hears; is deaf; is conscious or unconscious”. This brief remark has huge philosophical ramifications, which we’ll have to leave for a later post. For now, we should just note that Wittgenstein is stressing the difference between an ontological claim (“pain exists”) and a conceptual one (“this is what we call ‘pain’”). Consider what it means to create a country by drawing its boundaries on a map. In a sense, this brings the country into existence, but of course it doesn’t literally create the land – all the mountains, rivers, plains, etc – which makes up the country. And it’s similar with the conceptual boundary we have for pain. The boundary as drawn includes a logical link between pain and pain behaviour. The latter is part of the definition of the former. But nothing is brought into existence, apart from the concept itself.</span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{94}" paraid="1676187110" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{94}" paraid="1676187110" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">One final point. </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">Since the private linguist’s use of the word “pain” differs crucially from our own, he has no reason for using it.</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> Indeed, to spare us all a lot of confusion, he’d be better off finding a different word. And of course, what goes for “pain” goes also for “sensation”. Indeed, even to say he “has Something” is a misapplication, since “has” and “something” belong to our public language. “So</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> in the end, when one is doing philosophy, one gets to the point where one would just like to emit an inarticulate sound. – But such a sound is an expression only in a particular language-game, which now has to be described” (§261). Ouch!</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{104}" paraid="321765917" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"></span></span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{108}" paraid="1650245686" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: bold; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Sensation-Language as a Part of Life</span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{108}" paraid="1650245686" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{114}" paraid="1237978366" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Severing the link between pain and its expression raises a further difficulty for the private linguist: what </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">purpose</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> is served by his language? For us, having sensations and verbalising them is a matter of </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">consequence</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">. We feel pain and so we can no longer walk properly, or concentrate, hold things, etc. We tell someone we’re in pain and we get treatment or sympathy or mockery, cruelty, indifference, etc. But for the private linguist, his sensations are just </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">there</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">, passive and inert. They lack genuine significance. This by itself can make us wonder if they really deserve the name “sensations” at all – which in turn shows how far our concept of sensation is bound up with its expression and our wider lives more generally. Likewise, his private language is passive and inert. It doesn’t achieve or affect anything. And this can make us wonder if it really deserves the name “language” at all.</span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{114}" paraid="1237978366" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{132}" paraid="1977870892" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">Certainly Wittgenstein has his doubts. In §258, after describing how the private linguist supposedly names his sensations, he asks “But what is this ceremony for? For that is all it seems to be!” And in §260 he further questions whether the private linguist’s sensation-diary really amounts to an actual diary: “Don’t consider it a matter of course that a person is making a note of something when he makes a mark – say in a calendar. </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">For a note has a </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">function</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">, and this ‘S’ so far has none” (my italics).</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> Finally, in §268, he asks “Why can’t my right hand give my left hand </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">money? – My right hand can put it into my left hand. My right hand can write a deed of gift, and my left hand a receipt. – But the further </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">practical consequences</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> would not be those of a gift” (my italics). By analogy, the private language is no more than a </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">parody</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> of an actual language precisely because it too lacks consequences.</span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{132}" paraid="1977870892" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{158}" paraid="1442676533" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">It’s tempting to suppose otherwise. Why does language have to achieve something? Can’t I, for example, just keep a record of events because I want to, and not because it’s useful in some way? So, with the sensation-diary introduced in §258, we might say that what it achieves is itself. It records the reoccurrence of sensation “S” over time, and that’s enough. </span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{158}" paraid="1442676533" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{164}" paraid="1296896042" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Okay, but how about this: there’s no such thing as language, and then one day someone keeps a list which serves no purpose. Does </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">that</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> make sense? As things stand, I can of course keep a record of something just because I feel like it, but such an activity takes place within a language that already has numerous established techniques for producing </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">consequential</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> records: school reports, shopping lists, company accounts, appointment diaries, and so on. The moot point is whether a purposeless record could be </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">foundational</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> – for that is the task which the private linguist has set himself.</span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{164}" paraid="1296896042" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{182}" paraid="1046145745" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Let’s consider this foundational purposeless record. Over the course of a few days someone writes down “S” at various times. The resulting “list” plays no part in his subsequent actions. He doesn’t, for example, consult it later when doing something else. But in that case, what right do we have to suppose he has made a </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">record</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> of something? He might just as easily have written “S” each time merely because he felt like it. It might be a list, a pleasing design, or just a series of random doodles. That is, it could be something or nothing.</span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{182}" paraid="1046145745" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{192}" paraid="1372159007" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">But surely the author </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">himself</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> knows what he’s created? And that’s all that’s needed for a private language. This is a strongly persuasive suggestion, and yet there’s also something dubious about it. For example, when the private linguist writes his first “S” does he </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">know</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> that he’s starting a list? How can he without some kind of paradigm or archetype to guide him? And since the list serves no purpose, what’s the difference – </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">for him</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> – between keeping a record and merely writing “S” whenever he feels like it? </span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{192}" paraid="1372159007" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{210}" paraid="1938803059" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">It’s tempting to brush such questions aside and say that the private linguist forms the </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">intention</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> of keeping a list and then goes ahead and carries out his intention. So the intention is the archetype. There are two things to be said against this. First, the jump from nothing to a full-blown technique of list-making seems too big to make sense. If I intend to keep a list I can say what it is that I intend: another one of </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">these</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">. And if my list is in some way innovative I can say that it’s another one of </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">these</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">, plus </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">this</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">. My innovation builds upon, and is supported by, an existing framework of customs and techniques. That’s part of what it </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">means</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> to innovate. But going from </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">nothing</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> to a full-blown list would be more like jumping straight from rudimentary counting to quadratic equations. How could the latter be seen as an extension of the former with nothing in between? Quadratic equations would make no </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">sense</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> in such a context – even to the person who was proposing them. Likewise, what sense would the private linguist’s intended innovation make to him? An intention is embedded in a situation which makes it possible. If I know the rules of football, it is impossible for me to intend to win a penalty by diving on the half-way line.</span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{210}" paraid="1938803059" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{244}" paraid="1474040505" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">The temptation to suppose that intention can enable creation ex nihilo stems, at least in part, from the idea that having an intention is akin to having a picture in our mind. We form an image of doing something and then go on to do it. No prior framework is needed for this image to exist; the mere fact that it’s there is enough. Again, the intention is the archetype. Fully exposing the incoherence of such an account will have to wait for another time. Right now it’s enough to note that it leads to the second objection mentioned above: how can intention (qua image) play the role of an archetype? That’s like saying that an imagined example can do the work of an actual example. If I need an example – say, of basket weaving – to show me what to do, then it’s no good simply imagining one. (Of course, I might imagine a technique and then try it out – and it might work. But what I imagined wasn’t an example, for all that. “Maybe this will work” isn’t the same as “this is how it’s done”. And in any case, the private linguist has no criterion of “working” here, since his list serves no purpose. Whatever he does will be right, so long as it seems that way to him.)</span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{244}" paraid="1474040505" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{30e46677-7e7f-484f-9476-d492ab3c0405}{250}" paraid="537942660" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">If all this sounds familiar, it’s because it draws upon arguments already set out in the rule-following sections of the </span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Investigations</span><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> (see in particular §§197-205). It also leads directly on to strands (c) and (d) mentioned in my introduction. The question as to whether the private linguist understands his own signs boils down to the question as to whether ostensive definition can, by itself, found a new linguistic technique. This in turn raises issues about the logical possibility of a private sample as the lynchpin of a private ostensive definition – and that’s more or less the same as asking whether an image can fulfil the role of an archetype.</span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{5}" paraid="372403235" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW5440530 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"></span></span><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{9}" paraid="1882454675" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: bold; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">The Private Language and Ostensive Definition</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{9}" paraid="1882454675" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{15}" paraid="1959660150" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Once sensation has been logically detached from its expression, sensation-language cannot be founded as an extension of our natural behaviour. Nor can this language be explained in terms of its </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">use</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> since, essentially speaking, it has none. Instead, we’re pretty much forced to view our sensations as inner-objects, and to base our language on the </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">naming</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> of these objects.</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{15}" paraid="1959660150" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{29}" paraid="986844493" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">How is this naming achieved? By association (§256). I focus my attention on a particular sensation as I pronounce the word (§258) – or perhaps it would be better to say that I focus my attention on the word and the sensation together. I commit to memory the connection between the sign and the sensation, so that next time the sensation appears the name is right there along with it. That’s how the word gets its meaning: by a kind of inner </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.com/2012/04/meaning-is-use-part-2-caveat-and.html" target="_blank">ostensive definition</a></span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">.</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{29}" paraid="986844493" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{39}" paraid="1464308625" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">In §257 Wittgenstein at once questions whether the private linguist really understands his own names. Or, rather, he questions whether the private linguist’s baptismal act really amounts to naming at all – so if the names aren’t understood it’s because there’s nothing to understand. The basis for his criticism is that genuine naming goes along with (indeed, is proceeded by) the </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">grammar</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> of the name. When a child is baptised, for example, we already know how proper names are used; the only thing lacking is the particular name of this particular child. But without the pre-established use of proper names, the baptism itself achieves nothing. In other words, “much must be prepared in the language for mere naming to make sense” (§257). An established grammar is precisely what the private linguist lacks, and so his act of baptism is a sham. He feels a sensation and he makes a sound, but so what? Whatever connection there is between the two, it is not the connection between an object and its name.</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{39}" paraid="1464308625" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{49}" paraid="1235623420" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Another way of making the same point is to say that grammar provides a </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">standard of correctness</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> for the use of a word. Knowing </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">how</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> to use a word is of course knowing how to use it correctly. And so, again, an act of baptism isolated from any established technique of usage lacks a standard of correctness. There’s no right or wrong way of using the new word. And since the criterion for </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">understanding</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> a word is correct usage, it follows that the new word isn’t understood – not even by its creator. The private linguist doesn’t understand his own language. Of course, this is not like when I don’t understand the word “aphasia”. That is, the private linguist doesn’t </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">fail</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> to understand his words. Rather, there is </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">no such thing</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> as understanding them, for they aren’t really words at all.</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{49}" paraid="1235623420" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{75}" paraid="2147292056" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">But aren’t we being unfair to the private linguist? He is going to write “S” every time a particular sensation occurs. Doesn’t that amount to a technique, and therefore a grammar and a standard of correctness? In other words, the private linguist </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">invents</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> a grammar to go along with his newly-coined vocabulary. Wittgenstein considers this option in §§262-263 and asks how the invention is supposed to come about. The private linguist’s answer, as we’ve already seen (§256), is that he focuses his attention on a sensation and resolves to call it “S” in the future. But is this enough? Actually, Wittgenstein has already answered his own question in §253: “one does not define a criterion of identity by emphatically enunciating the word ‘this’.” If the private linguist says “I will call </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">this</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> ‘S’ in the future” he’s immediately faced with the question “what do you mean by ‘</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">this</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">’?” And the answer can’t be “whatever I’m going to call ‘S’ in the future”, because that’s just circular.</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{75}" paraid="2147292056" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{93}" paraid="1604862612" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">The private linguist is trying to create a grammar out of his sample (“this”), but it’s the grammar that gives identity to the sample, not the other way round. So he doesn’t actually </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">have</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> a sample! It just </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">seems</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> like he does, because we’re all familiar with cases in which new names are coined (“from now on I’m going to call </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">this</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> ‘x’”). But what we have in such cases is an established grammar into which we can slot the new word. Suppose I discover a new type of tree which gives a new type of fruit. I can happily set about inventing names for the tree, its fruit and so on. But of course I already have an established grammar for trees and fruit (and for countless other things which are more or less similar to them: bushes, pine cones, etc). And it’s this grammar which is presupposed in my act of naming, and which makes everything flow so easily. If we forget this background, it can seem as if names can be created out of nothing by a kind of mental fiat. But they can’t.</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{93}" paraid="1604862612" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{111}" paraid="1117942289" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">The same thing goes for the alternative idea touched upon in §262 and §264, namely that mere acquaintance with an object is enough to </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">force</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> a grammar upon us once we start talking about it. We don’t have to invent a grammar because we find it ready-made. So, for example, if I’m shown a lychee for the first time and told its name I can immediately say “pass me the lychee” (plus countless other sentences), and I know that it’s nonsense to say “lychee me an apple”. I don’t have to </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">resolve</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> to use the word in a particular way; the grammar just seems to come along with the nature of the object itself. But, again, an awful lot of stage-setting stands behind this easy fluency. Given my years of experience, I know how to talk about fruit (and physical objects more generally), and can easily incorporate new examples into my repertoire. But it’s not like that for toddlers, who frequently over- and under-extend new words. For example, on learning that the family pet is a “cat”, they might go around calling everything they like “cat” – their teddy, blanket, and so on. It’s all “cat”. (§28: “an ostensive definition can be variously interpreted in </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">any</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> case”.) There is no mysterious force emanating from the objects around us which compels us to adopt a particular grammar. We have to be </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">trained</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> into it.</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{111}" paraid="1117942289" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{133}" paraid="653130525" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">All this can seem paradoxical. If names require a pre-established grammar to give them meaning, how does language ever get off the ground in the first place? It seems as if we need grammar before we even have words. But how then is grammar itself created? The answer is that words and their grammar emerge together out of steady ways of living. I don’t just have a grammar for the word “fruit”; I also have fruit. I eat it, buy it, pick it, carry it around, put it in bowls, throw it away when it gets mouldy, etc, etc. Likewise, I don’t just have the word “pain”; I suffer it, it incapacitates me, makes me cry. I witness it in others and tend to them, pity them, ignore them, take advantage of their frailty, gloat over their distress. That’s the background onto which language is grafted. And it’s precisely the background which the private linguist has foresworn.</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{139}" paraid="1865089285" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"></span></span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{143}" paraid="212324441" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: bold; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Private Samples</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{143}" paraid="212324441" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{149}" paraid="666555531" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">As we’ve seen, in §258 Wittgenstein objects to the private language on the grounds that it provides no criterion of correctness for the use of its words. In the above sections, I cashed this out in terms of grammar, rule-following, etc. Such points are not specific to a sensation-language; they apply equally to talk about stones and trees. But in §258 Wittgenstein’s immediate complaint concerns correctness in relation to </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">memory</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">. That’s more narrowly pertinent to a private language because a private language relies exclusively on memory for its definitional samples: I know that the sensation I’m feeling now is called “S” because it’s the same as the sensation I remember having in the past, which I baptised “S”. Even if we leave aside the need for samples to be embedded in an existing grammar, we’re faced with the question as to whether memory alone can fulfil the role of a sample.</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{149}" paraid="666555531" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{159}" paraid="1570771117" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">So the private language’s words are defined by committing to memory the connection between the sign and the sensation. Wittgenstein immediately retorts that “’I commit it to memory’ can only mean: this process brings it about that I remember the connection </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">correctly</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> in the future. But in the present case, I have no criterion of correctness. One would like to say: whatever is going to seem correct to me is correct. And that only means that here we can’t talk about ‘correctness’” (§258 – the connection with §202 should be obvious).</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{159}" paraid="1570771117" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{169}" paraid="265757043" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Note that Wittgenstein’s point does not hinge upon the </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">fallibility</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> of memory. He’s not saying that because we </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">sometimes</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> misremember we might </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">always</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> be misremembering. Such a sceptical argument would undermine </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">all</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> language, not just a private one. But it would also be incoherent. If I can never be sure that my memories are correct then I can never be sure that they’re </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">incorrect</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> either – yet the sceptic’s argument relies on the fact that we </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">know</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> our memories sometimes mislead us. Therefore, we must also know what it is to remember correctly. The sceptic’s doubt illicitly relies on the very thing he’s trying to call into question: a standard of correctness for memory. Without that, there would be neither correct nor incorrect memories.</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{169}" paraid="265757043" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{199}" paraid="592897540" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">And that is Wittgenstein’s point: we </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">do</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> have a standard of correctness for memories, and it involves checking what we remember to be the case against what actually </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">is</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> the case. If my memory suggests that Addis Ababa is the capital of Ethiopia but my friend is certain it’s Nairobi, we can look it up – or even visit Ethiopia to find out. As Wittgenstein points out in §56, “we do not always resort to what memory tells us as the verdict of the highest court of appeal”. In practice, of course, we don’t always go that far. As long as we remember clearly we tend to trust our memories, and if there’s a difference of opinion we’ll often go along with the person who’s certain rather than the one who’s unsure (and in the case of Ethiopia, that might get us into trouble). Indeed, sometimes our memories can be so compelling that we refuse to give them up even when the facts seem to contradict us. If I’m sure there’s a post office at the end of a certain road, but when I get there it’s a charity shop, I might just say “they must have changed it; I’m </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">certain</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> this used to be a post office”. We don’t check every last memory that crosses our minds, and we don’t always trust the result of a check either.</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{199}" paraid="592897540" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{217}" paraid="577374481" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">But what if there was no way of ever checking </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">any</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> memory? What if there was </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">no such thing</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> as checking a memory against the facts? We’d be left with only the </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">impression</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> that things were (or used to be) thus-and-so. But would that even count as an impression? The concept of having an impression (thinking, believing, remembering, being certain that x) </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">goes together with</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> the concept of checking, making sure, establishing the facts. If we logically isolate impressions then they cease to be impressions at all – that is, they no longer play the role of what we call “impressions”. Without an objective method of calibration, memories wouldn’t be memories.</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{217}" paraid="577374481" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{239}" paraid="1478091713" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">This, of course, is a problem for the private linguist. His language is founded upon the notion of checking the sensation he has now against the memory of a past sensation in order to justify calling it “S”. This is to say, he is using his memory as a sample in order to judge the correctness of his subsequent assertions. But memories themselves stand in need of justification. Samples, by contrast, are neither justified nor unjustified; they are what we use to justify </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">other things</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">: assertions, judgements, impressions, and so on. They are the ruler, not what is measured. That’s why a memory cannot function as a sample.</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{239}" paraid="1478091713" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{249}" paraid="196162602" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">But if memories can’t provide an objective justification, might they nonetheless provide a subjective one? Wittgenstein mentions this option in §265. It gets its appeal from the fact that sometimes we use one memory to support another. For example: I seem to recall that </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Temptation</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> by New Order was released in 1982, but I’m not sure. Then I clearly remember listening to it repeatedly on the evening before my geography A level exam when I should have been revising – so, yes, it must’ve been 1982. Okay, but this doesn’t really get us any further forward. A clear recollection still stands in need of justification, just like a hazy one. That is to say, “I clearly remember that x” doesn’t have the status of </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">proof</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">. It doesn’t play that role in our lives. Checking one memory against another can be useful, but in terms of establishing correctness it’s “As if someone were to buy several copies of today’s morning paper to assure himself that what it said was true” (§265).</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{249}" paraid="196162602" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{8}" paraid="1601784776" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">The private linguist has nothing that counts as checking his memory against the facts, and so he has nothing that counts as establishing its correctness. Whatever is going to seem correct to him is correct. “And that only means that here we can’t talk about ‘correctness’” (§258). And if there’s no standard of correctness then there’s no language either, because language has to be more than making whatever noises feel right at the time.</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{14}" paraid="883052159" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"></span></span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{18}" paraid="1349398506" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: bold; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Using the Private Language</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{18}" paraid="1349398506" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{24}" paraid="1496247507" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">I discussed earlier how the private language lacks functionality. If you’re going to claim that such a language is not only </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">possible</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> but forms the basis of our </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">actual</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> language, then clearly this is a problem. And, of course, that’s precisely the claim made by numerous philosophers from Descartes through to modern-day cognitive scientists. Language (meaning) is basically a matter of </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">representations</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> in the mind (or brain): pictures, maps, apperceptions, sense data, qualia, and so on. These are the inner objects which form the true subject-matter of language. And since my representations are hidden, only </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">I</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> truly know what I’m talking about. </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">You</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> have to figure it out as best you can.</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{24}" paraid="1496247507" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{50}" paraid="1437665431" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">At the same time, nobody denies that we put language to use. What we say and write has real-life consequences. How does that work? How might a private language get a public face? Wittgenstein turns to this in §270 when he imagines a use for the entries in the private linguist’s diary. Whenever there’s an entry “S”, it turns out that the diarist’s blood pressure is rising. So he can tell he has rising blood pressure simply from the fact that he’s written “S”. The private language has consequences. But now Wittgenstein remarks “it seems quite indifferent whether I’ve recognised the sensation </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">correctly</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> or not. Suppose that I regularly make a mistake in identifying it, this does not make any difference at all”. So long as the correlation between writing “S” and rising blood pressure holds true, the diary performs its function and the correct identification of the sensation is neither here nor there.</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{50}" paraid="1437665431" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{60}" paraid="1035234638" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">This is a deeply ironic twist of the knife. First the private language is criticised for being useless and then, when a use is proposed, the language’s subject-matter is cast aside as irrelevant!</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{60}" paraid="1035234638" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{66}" paraid="708426920" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Two issues might trouble us, however. First, Wittgenstein seems to suggest that the very idea of keeping a sensation-diary is bogus – or, at least, that it doesn’t matter if the diary’s entries are </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">correct</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">, so long as they correlate with other aspects of the world. Yet it is quite common for people to keep such diaries. Are they all behaving foolishly? And if I kept such a diary I wouldn’t be indifferent to the correctness of my entries. Whatever </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">use</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> they had, it would be essential that each “S” picked out the same sensation. For the whole point of writing “S” is to record the fact that </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">this</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> sensation (and not some other) has occurred again.</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{66}" paraid="708426920" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{84}" paraid="1048089261" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Secondly, if the utility of the diary entries trumps their correctness, why doesn’t this apply just as much to a record of physical occurrences as to a sensation-diary?</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{84}" paraid="1048089261" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{90}" paraid="1659034382" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Let’s take the second point first. Suppose I keep a diary in which I write “S” every time there’s a particular cloud formation in the sky (eg, stratocumulus). Later, I realise that whenever I write “S” I get bad TV reception. So now I can tell if my TV reception’s going to be disrupted simply from the fact that I’ve written “S”. Couldn’t we say here that so long as the correlation between writing “S” and bad reception holds good, it doesn’t matter if each “S” correctly records the occurrence of stratocumulus clouds? Won’t my cloud-diary be just as useful either way?</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{90}" paraid="1659034382" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{96}" paraid="109996597" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Maybe, but it’s important to recognise that I have options which aren’t open to the private linguist. For one thing, I can check the correctness of my entries. I can use samples (eg, photos of different cloud formations), take my own photos to supplement my entries, and then compare the two. As we’ve seen, the private linguist can’t do that. At best, he might form a strong </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">impression</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> that today’s sensation is the same as yesterday’s, but an impression isn’t proof. (§265: “Looking up a table in the imagination is no more looking up a table than the image of the result of an imagined experiment is the result of an experiment.”)</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{96}" paraid="109996597" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{106}" paraid="174516371" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Suppose now I check my previous entries and find that they are often wrong, and yet each “S” still correlates to bad TV reception. Here I might indeed be indifferent to these errors since they still produce a useful result, but now the whole nature of what I’m doing has changed. I’m no longer keeping a genuine diary. It’s more like I’m using the clouds as a source of </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">inspiration</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">. I gaze at them, and every now and then get the urge to write “S” – indeed, this might even happen on a completely clear day. Nonetheless (and somewhat miraculously) the resulting entries are useful. I’m more like a cloud shaman than a cloud diarist.</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{106}" paraid="174516371" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{116}" paraid="844442524" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">The private linguist’s position is similar, though worse. For it’s not that he has no way of checking the correctness of his entries but rather that there’s </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">no such thing</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> as their being correct or incorrect. The private linguist is not keeping a diary which might, or might not, be accurate. He’s not keeping a </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">diary</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> at all. But still, so long as the link between writing “S” and high blood pressure obtains, what does it matter?</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{116}" paraid="844442524" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{130}" paraid="2060647664" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Now let’s go back to the first issue: is Wittgenstein claiming that for </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">any</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> personal sensation diary it doesn’t really matter if our entries are right or wrong? That would be a </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">revelation</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">, and would hardly square with Wittgenstein’s insistence that philosophy “leaves everything as it is” (§124). But here I think we need to distinguish between two different claims:</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="ListContainerWrapper SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-align: left; user-select: text;"><ol style="text-align: left;"><li><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text; white-space: pre-wrap;" xml:lang="EN-GB">If I write “S” it doesn’t matter if I’m correct or not.</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></li><li><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text; white-space: pre-wrap;" xml:lang="EN-GB">If I write “S” it doesn’t matter if I’m in pain or not.</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></li></ol></div></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{158}" paraid="460889128" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">If I undertake to write “S” each time I’m in pain, then </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">of course</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> it matters whether or not I’m in pain when I write “S”. But the issue of </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">correctness</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> doesn’t come into it, for I can no more be correct (or incorrect) about being in pain than I can know (or not know) that I’m in pain. If I write “S” when I’m not in pain then I’m either lying or else I’ve forgotten that “S” is the sign I’ve chosen for pain. What can’t be the case is that I’ve mis-identified my sensation. And that’s not because I unerringly identify my sensations correctly, but because I don’t </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">identify</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> them at all.</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{158}" paraid="460889128" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{176}" paraid="1174704466" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Think of writing “S” as a highly refined extension of our natural pain behaviour, rather than a description of a mental state (§244). Both descriptions and groans can let someone else know how things stand, but that doesn’t mean that a groan is a type of description. And this distinction remains important even when our groans are replaced by verbal equivalents. “I am in pain” </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">looks</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> much more like a description than “ouch” – indeed, we might even freely admit that it is a </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">type</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> of description – but that doesn’t mean it functions in exactly the same way as (eg) “I am in London” (cf §§290-291). It has a different place in our lives, different roots, and runs according to different rules. We are taught to express our pains verbally and later in writing. The result of this training is not to produce within us a series of mental samples which we then use to identify what we’re feeling. It </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">can’t</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> be, because there’s no such thing as a mental sample. Rather, it makes possible a range of more or less sophisticated </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">reactions</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> – such as telling a doctor what’s wrong with us, or writing “S” whenever we feel a particular pain.</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{176}" paraid="1174704466" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{198}" paraid="99737532" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">The issue highlighted in §270 is that if we suppose keeping a sensation-diary to be a straightforward matter of description – recording an arrangement of (inner) objects – then as soon as we try to give this description a function, the objects themselves cease to matter. All we need is the description and its consequences. “That is to say, if we construe the grammar of the expression of sensation on the model of ‘object and name’, the object drops out of consideration as irrelevant” (§293). In philosophy, this mistake is called behaviourism.</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{204}" paraid="1082903722" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"></span></span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{208}" paraid="1528038545" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: bold; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Conclusion</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{208}" paraid="1528038545" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{214}" paraid="1094962724" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">By the end of §271 Wittgenstein has broken the back of the private language. Its self-imposed isolation from the flow of our public lives (including our natural expression of sensation) leaves it without a grammar – since the latter grows out of the former. Instead, it attempts to found itself upon acts of naming, with something like ostensive definition providing the rules to hold everything in place. But this is doomed before it begins. For names only function </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">as names</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> when embedded in an established grammar. Moreover, the attempt relies on the supposition that sensations (viewed as inner objects) can be used as samples to ground its definitions. But sensations aren’t objects, and remembering a sensation is not like pulling a chart out of your pocket to check that you’ve done things right. Sensations can’t be samples. The end result of all this is that the private language lacks a genuine standard of correctness. And without </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">that</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> it doesn’t even qualify as a language.</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{214}" paraid="1094962724" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><p class="Paragraph SCXW5440530 BCX0" paraeid="{1eef71f4-e355-4e3d-abfb-428e9770ea94}{5}" paraid="372403235" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="EOP SCXW5440530 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"></span></p><div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW30012962 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW30012962 BCX0" paraeid="{5f1dca7e-7563-4a46-a957-74a6a68c8aa3}{228}" paraid="1936565659" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">A house of cards has been demolished, but we ought to pause for a moment and reflect on the significance of what’s just happened. Because it’s not only the private language that’s been repudiated; one of the central philosophical traditions of the last four hundred years has come tumbling down in its wake: the “object-in-a-box" theory of mind. And not just this or that </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">version</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> of the concept – the </span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">whole thing</span><span class="TextRun SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> is in ruins. Substance dualism, property dualism, idealism, transcendental idealism, physicalism, solipsism, phenomenology, functionalism, monism, materialism, behaviourism, mysterianism and naturalism are all dragged down in the aftermath. It’s nothing less than the rejection of philosophy’s account of what it means to be a human being.</span><span class="EOP SCXW30012962 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div></div>Philip Cartwrighthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11458571502536123264noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6701420428167031490.post-54773672420895340332021-09-27T08:18:00.007+01:002021-09-27T08:21:11.074+01:00 The Private Language Argument III: Pain and Possession: §253 <p><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">§253 continues the assault on the “object-in-a-box" conception of mind. This time, the target is provided by the seemingly innocuous assertion that “Another person can’t have my pains”. Wittgenstein responds with a somewhat startling question: “</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">My</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> pains – what pains are they?” It’s actually quite difficult to grasp what he’s getting at here. I have my pains, you have yours, I can’t have your pains and you can’t have mine – what on earth is controversial about that? Typically, Wittgenstein only hints at the answer: “What counts as a criterion of identity here? Consider what makes it possible in the case of physical objects to speak of ‘two exactly the same’”. We’re going to have to work things out for ourselves.</span><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW1444574" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{e9e37268-3bd5-4553-a276-3234fdbfd2cc}{174}" paraid="1539882536" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"></span></span><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW1444574" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{e9e37268-3bd5-4553-a276-3234fdbfd2cc}{178}" paraid="1311777812" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">The Identity of Objects</span><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{e9e37268-3bd5-4553-a276-3234fdbfd2cc}{178}" paraid="1311777812" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW1444574" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{e9e37268-3bd5-4553-a276-3234fdbfd2cc}{184}" paraid="1159630379" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Suppose you and I both buy a copy of </span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Dubliners</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> from Waterstone’s. Now we both have the same book: they look identical both inside and out. But, of course, you have your copy and I have mine. How can we be sure of this? Well, for one thing, we can track their different paths through the world. Yours was to the left of mine when you took it from the shelf and now it’s in your bag, whereas mine is on my desk at home. If we put them both in a sack and jumble it around a bit, it might be impossible to say for certain which is which. But still, we would readily agree that one of them is your book and the other is mine. We can no longer tell them apart precisely because we’ve lost track of their journey – not because they’ve lost their individuality. That’s how we relate to physical objects: their persistence through space and time is a key criterion of their identity.</span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{e9e37268-3bd5-4553-a276-3234fdbfd2cc}{184}" paraid="1159630379" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW1444574" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{e9e37268-3bd5-4553-a276-3234fdbfd2cc}{194}" paraid="1203041526" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">To avoid getting them mixed up, however, we might do something to individuate them more clearly. For example, we might write our names in our respective copies. Now we can easily tell them apart. Since they are no longer physically identical, does that mean we have different books rather than different copies of the same book? No. We both still have a copy of </span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Dubliners</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">. And that would also be true if we’d bought different editions, with different covers and different introductions. Indeed, it would even be true if you’d bought a French translation and mine was in the original English.</span><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{e9e37268-3bd5-4553-a276-3234fdbfd2cc}{194}" paraid="1203041526" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW1444574" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{e9e37268-3bd5-4553-a276-3234fdbfd2cc}{204}" paraid="1422541820" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Moreover, although our copies are no longer exactly the same as when we bought them, they still count as the same objects. Indeed, a book (like other objects) can change in appearance quite dramatically over time yet still be considered the same thing. The spine might get cracked, the cover might get creased or torn, some pages fall out, etc – but these are taken as part of the book’s history rather than as reasons for denying its continued identity. Why? Well, that’s simply how it is with us; it goes together with the role physical objects play in our lives – how we interact with them. We can imagine things otherwise, but it would involve a substantial change in how we lived.</span><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{e9e37268-3bd5-4553-a276-3234fdbfd2cc}{204}" paraid="1422541820" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW1444574" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{e9e37268-3bd5-4553-a276-3234fdbfd2cc}{210}" paraid="1892118315" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Okay, so how do things run regarding pain? On the face of it, the analogy seems compellingly exact. I stub my big toe and you stub yours; now I have a pain in my big toe and you in yours, just like I have a copy of </span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Dubliners</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> in my hand and you have a different copy in yours. As with the books, our pains are qualitatively the same but numerically distinct. They have a different location and a different history.</span><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{e9e37268-3bd5-4553-a276-3234fdbfd2cc}{210}" paraid="1892118315" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW1444574" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{e9e37268-3bd5-4553-a276-3234fdbfd2cc}{220}" paraid="991258787" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">There is, however, an interesting asymmetry in the two cases. I can give you my copy of </span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Dubliners</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">, but I can’t give you my pain. At best (it seems) I can give you a qualitatively similar pain – for example, by making you stub your toe. And this seems to speak to the </span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">essence</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> of pain considered as a sensation-object. Come what may, only </span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">I</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> can have my pain.</span><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{e9e37268-3bd5-4553-a276-3234fdbfd2cc}{220}" paraid="991258787" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW1444574" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{e9e37268-3bd5-4553-a276-3234fdbfd2cc}{238}" paraid="1042826154" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Unfortunately for the “object-in-a-box" model, the asymmetries don’t stop there.</span><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW1444574" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{e9e37268-3bd5-4553-a276-3234fdbfd2cc}{244}" paraid="866983907" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"></span></span><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW1444574" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{e9e37268-3bd5-4553-a276-3234fdbfd2cc}{248}" paraid="397382794" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Having Things</span><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{e9e37268-3bd5-4553-a276-3234fdbfd2cc}{248}" paraid="397382794" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW1444574" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{e9e37268-3bd5-4553-a276-3234fdbfd2cc}{254}" paraid="1365527295" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">First, let’s consider the notion of </span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">having</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> pains. One of the most compelling aspects of the above account is the formal similarity between “I have a book” and “I have a pain”. Objects are things we have or don’t have; we have or don’t have pains. Therefore pains are objects. </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{e9e37268-3bd5-4553-a276-3234fdbfd2cc}{254}" paraid="1365527295" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW1444574" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{8f5e7157-e911-4478-b924-3283446002e3}{9}" paraid="1040762120" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">But it’s worth noting that we use the word “have” in a surprising variety of ways. I can have a book or a pain – but I can also have a good time, a friend in Milwaukee, a sense of humour, an overdraft, a doctor’s appointment next week and the right to vote. No-one's going to call the right to vote an object, but I can have it nonetheless. Where, then, does pain stand in this menagerie of having?</span><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{8f5e7157-e911-4478-b924-3283446002e3}{9}" paraid="1040762120" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW1444574" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{8f5e7157-e911-4478-b924-3283446002e3}{15}" paraid="774155818" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Here we should reflect that an alternative to “I have a pain” is “I am </span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">in</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> pain”. There is no analogous term in the case of books or apples or hats. We might try to assimilate the two by saying “I am in a state of having a book”, but really this is just playing with words (</span><span class="NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 SCXW1444574 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlSpellingErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: 0% 100%; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">cf</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> §14). What could it mean apart from “I have a book”? By contrast, “I am in pain” is an </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">expression</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> of pain (</span><span class="NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 SCXW1444574 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlSpellingErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: 0% 100%; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">cf</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> §244). And this highlights the different places in our lives occupied by objects and pains. We have pains, not as </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">possessions</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">, but in the sense that we </span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">suffer</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> them.</span><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW1444574" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{8f5e7157-e911-4478-b924-3283446002e3}{45}" paraid="712486449" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"></span></span><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW1444574" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{8f5e7157-e911-4478-b924-3283446002e3}{49}" paraid="352638582" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">The Identity of Pain</span><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{8f5e7157-e911-4478-b924-3283446002e3}{49}" paraid="352638582" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW1444574" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{8f5e7157-e911-4478-b924-3283446002e3}{55}" paraid="2111284310" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">This distinction is likewise evident when we dig a bit deeper into the question of identity. Suppose I stubbed my toe yesterday and now I stub it again today. Is that the same pain back again, or another one just like it? If pain really is a sensation-object then I ought to be able to give an answer, but actually I have no idea how I’m meant to decide. For example, I might claim it’s a different pain because it’s slightly more intense than yesterday. But how do I know that this difference in quality betokens a difference in identity? I might just as easily claim that it’s the same pain, but it has intensified since yesterday – like a tomato ripening in the sun. Or I might claim that it must be a different one, because each pain has a particular life-span. When it ceases it is, so to speak, dead, and any future pain – no matter how similar – is a new-born individual. That would be a definition, but what’s my </span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">justification</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> for adopting it? How would I refute someone who insisted I was wrong? After all, there are pains which come and go – and if that’s just a figure of speech, is it more figurative than giving pain a life-span? You say “the pain stopped, but then it started again”. I insist that you should actually say “the pain stopped, but then a different one just like it began”. How are we to decide? How do we </span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">know</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">?</span><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{8f5e7157-e911-4478-b924-3283446002e3}{55}" paraid="2111284310" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW1444574" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{8f5e7157-e911-4478-b924-3283446002e3}{69}" paraid="1794111008" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">I cannot individuate my pains in the same way that I individuate my possessions. But if that’s the case, then I can’t individuate </span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">our</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> pains that way either. I stubbed my toe yesterday, now you stub yours today. I say this involves two similar yet distinct pains, but you insist it’s the same pain each time: first in my foot, then in yours. Again, how are we to decide?</span><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{8f5e7157-e911-4478-b924-3283446002e3}{69}" paraid="1794111008" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW1444574" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{8f5e7157-e911-4478-b924-3283446002e3}{79}" paraid="1301523420" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Okay, but what if we stub our toes at the same time? Surely here we must admit that there are two distinct pains? Not at all. We could just as easily say that the same pain was manifesting itself in two distinct locations. In fact, that’s more or less what we </span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">do</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> say. If I have arthritis in both hands, then I have </span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">same pain</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> in both hands. Likewise, if </span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">we</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> have arthritis in </span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">our</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> hands, we both have the same pain. Of course, location is important. It matters that I have a pain in my left hand, and not my right hand. It matters that you have cramp in your calf and I have it in my foot. But with pain, location is not a criterion of </span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">identity</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">. Hence if someone asks whether we mean the same actual pain or merely the same </span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">type</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> of pain, the question seems both redundant and absurd. Nothing at all hinges upon the answer and, for that reason, whichever answer we give will be just as good (or bad) as any other. Language has gone on holiday (§38).</span><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{8f5e7157-e911-4478-b924-3283446002e3}{79}" paraid="1301523420" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW1444574" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{8f5e7157-e911-4478-b924-3283446002e3}{109}" paraid="1319927314" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">That’s why Wittgenstein says “In so far as it makes </span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">sense</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> to say that my pain is the same as his, it is also possible for us both to have the same pain” (§253b). The attempt to individuate pain on the model of physical objects makes no sense. With pain, unlike with physical objects, there is no meaningful distinction between two pains which </span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">are</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> the same, and two which merely </span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">feel</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> the same.</span><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW1444574" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{8f5e7157-e911-4478-b924-3283446002e3}{127}" paraid="1686922667" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"></span></span><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW1444574" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{8f5e7157-e911-4478-b924-3283446002e3}{131}" paraid="193771913" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">This is This</span><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{8f5e7157-e911-4478-b924-3283446002e3}{131}" paraid="193771913" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW1444574" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{8f5e7157-e911-4478-b924-3283446002e3}{137}" paraid="1567637764" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">Yet how can such grammatical niceties ignore the brute fact of pain as we experience it in our lives – </span><span class="NormalTextRun ContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2 SCXW1444574 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: 0% 100%; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">its</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> awful tangibility? This, in effect, is the interlocutor’s point in §253c when he thumps his chest and declares that surely another person can’t have THIS. Wittgenstein is unmoved: “one does not define a criterion of identity by emphatically enunciating the word ‘this’”.</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{8f5e7157-e911-4478-b924-3283446002e3}{137}" paraid="1567637764" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW1444574" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{8f5e7157-e911-4478-b924-3283446002e3}{147}" paraid="443057167" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">The ramifications of this remark will form a central part of Wittgenstein’s argument against the notion of a private language. In part, it builds on his earlier discussion of ostensive definition (§§28-31 <a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.com/2012/04/meaning-is-use-part-2-caveat-and.html" target="_blank">discussed here</a>). In §30 he notes that “an ostensive definition explains the use – the meaning – of a word if the role the word is supposed to play in the language is already clear”. The interlocutor, however, is acting as if all he has to do is focus his attention on his pain while speaking in order to establish the meaning of “THIS”. He is, he supposes, picking out one object amongst others, and the rest takes care of itself. But what exactly </span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">is</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> he picking out? He can’t mean “a pain in the chest”, because we can have that just as easily as he can. Nor can he simply mean that when he thumps his chest we don’t feel the pain – nobody's going to deny that, but it hardly amounts to a metaphysical insight.</span><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{8f5e7157-e911-4478-b924-3283446002e3}{147}" paraid="443057167" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW1444574" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{8f5e7157-e911-4478-b924-3283446002e3}{157}" paraid="66309087" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">No. What he wants to say is that he possesses a particular thing which, </span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">necessarily</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">, cannot be possessed by anyone else. But, as we’ve already seen, this is where the analogy between pain and physical objects falls apart. Because if he’s now asked how he </span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">knows</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> that someone else can’t possess his inner object he has no response. And he has no response because he lacks the requisite criterion of</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> identity</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">; he has no way of distinguishing between </span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">this</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> object and another one just like it. And emphatically uttering “THIS” does not produce such a criterion either.</span><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{8f5e7157-e911-4478-b924-3283446002e3}{157}" paraid="66309087" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW1444574" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{8f5e7157-e911-4478-b924-3283446002e3}{179}" paraid="794107046" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Ostensive definition requires stage-setting, but when it comes to pain the stage isn’t set in the way it is for books or apples. This is not a question of “mere” grammatical niceties, for our grammar is woven into how we </span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">live</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">. We don’t fetch pains, or lose them, give them away or store them in the attic. We </span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">suffer</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> pain, and we manifest our suffering through our natural reactions. And as Wittgenstein suggests in §244, </span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">that</span><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> is the branch upon which we graft our talk of sensations.</span><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW1444574" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW1444574 BCX0" paraeid="{8f5e7157-e911-4478-b924-3283446002e3}{197}" paraid="1705148662" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW1444574 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"></span></span><span class="EOP SCXW1444574 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div>Philip Cartwrighthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11458571502536123264noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6701420428167031490.post-38799165720489660902021-09-12T10:32:00.002+01:002021-09-12T10:32:52.664+01:00 The Private Language Argument II: Pain and Knowledge: §§246-250 <p><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">As we saw in the <a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.com/2021/08/setting-up-private-language-argument.html" target="_blank">previous post</a>, the private language discussion brings along with it a critique of the “object-in-a-box" conception of mind, and it is this latter conception that Wittgenstein turns to in §§246-255 (with a detour concerning a priori propositions in §§251-252). In §§246-250 he discusses pain in relation to knowledge, and in §§253-255 considers the grammar of possession as it applies to pain. Both these passages aim at breaking down the hugely tempting idea that sensations are basically </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">inner objects – </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">that we possess them and know about them in a way which is broadly analogous to our knowledge and possession of physical objects. The problems connected with this idea will feed directly into the discussion of the private language itself, which begins at §256.</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{de457131-960e-4a27-84ce-fc4ce157fa5f}{182}" paraid="1819019108" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"></span></span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{de457131-960e-4a27-84ce-fc4ce157fa5f}{186}" paraid="4519278" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Subverting the Paradigm</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{de457131-960e-4a27-84ce-fc4ce157fa5f}{186}" paraid="4519278" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{de457131-960e-4a27-84ce-fc4ce157fa5f}{192}" paraid="1703034331" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">In §246, Wittgenstein asks “In what sense are my sensations </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">private</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">?” I suspect that most people would readily agree with the interlocutor’s reply: “only I can know whether I am really in pain; another person can only surmise it”. This view ties in with two obvious facts: when you are in </span><span class="NormalTextRun ContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2 BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: left bottom; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">pain</span><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> I don’t feel it, and when I am in </span><span class="NormalTextRun ContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2 BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: left bottom; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">pain</span><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> I certainly do feel it. It’s tempting to build upon these simple observations in the following way: not only do I know that I am in pain, but this represents a paradigm example of knowledge to which other cases merely approximate. My knowledge of my own pain is immediate and unfailingly correct, whereas my knowledge of your pain is indirect and prone to error.</span></span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{de457131-960e-4a27-84ce-fc4ce157fa5f}{192}" paraid="1703034331" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{de457131-960e-4a27-84ce-fc4ce157fa5f}{210}" paraid="1668456292" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">But Wittgenstein is having none of it: “In one way this is false, and in another nonsense”. It’s false in the sense that we often </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">do</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> know that others are in pain – and others often know it about us. And </span><span class="NormalTextRun ContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2 BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: left bottom; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">it’s</span><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> nonsense because the statement “I know I am in pain” is at best a misbegotten way of saying “I am in pain”. </span><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">So</span><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> in a few brief words, Wittgenstein subverts the traditional philosophical paradigm: others can know that I am in pain, and it makes no sense to say that I know it about myself.</span></span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{de457131-960e-4a27-84ce-fc4ce157fa5f}{210}" paraid="1668456292" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" lang="EN-GB" paraeid="{948c0552-e0b4-401a-b16d-f6ce189b48b1}{139}" paraid="1069767837" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">But is this correct? We might argue against it as follows. The world consists of innumerable facts, which can be divided into two groups: those I know and those I don’t know. Every fact is either known or unknown. If I am in pain, that is undeniably a fact about me, so now the question is: do I know it or not? Clearly it would be absurd to suppose that I might not know I was in pain, therefore I </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">do</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> know it. I know that I’m in pain.</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" lang="EN-GB" paraeid="{948c0552-e0b4-401a-b16d-f6ce189b48b1}{139}" paraid="1069767837" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{de457131-960e-4a27-84ce-fc4ce157fa5f}{238}" paraid="1813733293" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">This could be called the “passive” account of knowledge – “passive” because it is not concerned with knowledge as something active in our lives. Knowledge is either there or it isn’t; any consequences are beside the point. Put like that, we can see how knowledge is being treated as a kind of </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">possession</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">. It is an inner object or state. So now we are treating knowledge as an inner object in order to defend the conception of pain as an inner object, which is in turn being used to defend the idea of a private language consisting entirely of attaching names to inner objects. This is what we’re up against: not a few scattered errors, but a whole range of systematically interconnected and mutually supporting misconceptions. “An entire mythology is laid down in our language” (</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Big Typescript</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">, §93).</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" lang="EN-GB" paraeid="{fc87c3b7-09eb-4cb1-9760-32ec01875b5d}{172}" paraid="1252736347" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"></span></span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{7}" paraid="7576577" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">How to Know Things</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{7}" paraid="7576577" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{fc87c3b7-09eb-4cb1-9760-32ec01875b5d}{149}" paraid="1970596985" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Against this passive account §246 offers two criticisms: first, that such a conception goes against our actual use of the word “know”; and secondly, that even if we adapted our usage to allow “I know I’m in pain” it wouldn’t actually achieve anything – it would just be a strange way of saying “I’m in pain”.</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{fc87c3b7-09eb-4cb1-9760-32ec01875b5d}{149}" paraid="1970596985" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{fc87c3b7-09eb-4cb1-9760-32ec01875b5d}{152}" paraid="1903737572" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">In our ordinary usage, knowing is conceptually linked with </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">finding out</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> or how we come to know something. If I say I have an apple, I can justify this simply by holding it up to show you. How I came by the apple is neither here nor there – I might have stolen it, or it might just have materialised in my pocket; it doesn’t really matter. But if I say (</span><span class="NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlSpellingErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: left bottom; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">eg</span><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">) “I know the train is due at 8:15” this claim brings with it an obligation, if pressed, to explain how I came by my knowledge. A knowledge-claim stands in need of justification. I might, for example, say that I checked the timetable, or that I catch the 8:15 every morning, etc, etc. Such explanations will usually count as legitimising my claim. By contrast, if I say that the fact just materialised in my mind, this won’t do. And even if the train duly arrives at 8:15 you might still say I didn’t </span></span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">know</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> – I just got lucky.</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{fc87c3b7-09eb-4cb1-9760-32ec01875b5d}{152}" paraid="1903737572" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{31}" paraid="1052857034" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">The need for justification stems from the fact that knowledge-claims are connected up with decision-making in doubtful cases. Suppose there are three of us at the station at 7:55 one morning. Lee asks when the train’s due because he wants to know if he has time to buy a coffee. Jones says she thinks it’s 8am, and I say no, it’s 8:15. Lee asks me if I’m sure and I say “Yes, I know it is. I checked the timetable.” On this basis, Lee heads off to buy his coffee. This is a typical example of a knowledge-claim (there are, of course, numerous variations and unusual cases), and we can see how it centres on justified certainty confronting legitimate doubt.</span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{31}" paraid="1052857034" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{37}" paraid="1191450677" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">Now suppose that Lee is queuing for his coffee at 8am when he is shocked to hear the train arriving. He just makes it on board in time, seeks me out and demands to know why I misled him. I protest that I was only going by what the timetable said. Perplexed, we ask the ticket inspector why the train was so early and show him the timetable. “Oh, that’s a printing error” he says, “the train always arrives at 8am.” (Jones, by the way, is watching all this with a quietly satisfied smile on her face.) </span><span class="NormalTextRun ContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2 BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: left bottom; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">So</span><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> I didn’t know after all; I only </span></span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">thought</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> I knew.</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{37}" paraid="1191450677" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{51}" paraid="453859517" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">This move from “I know” to “I thought I knew” can seem perplexing if we view knowledge as an inner object. For that makes it look as if I misidentified something in my mind, and now I’m at a loss to explain how this happened or how I could ever tell genuine knowledge from a convincing imposter. Moreover, the nature of the genuine knowledge-object is perplexing in itself, since it seems to </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">guarantee</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> the existence of a state of affairs. But how could this possibly be true?</span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{51}" paraid="453859517" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{61}" paraid="2112266973" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">If we stick to the facts as described above, however, there really isn’t a problem. My knowledge-claim expressed a certainty backed by reasons, and in such cases we are entitled to say “I know...” rather than “I believe...” or “I think...”. Of course, we can still be wrong, and when that happens our assertion loses the status of knowledge. We didn’t know after all. So the super-strong connection between knowing and how things are in the world is actually a </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">grammatical</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> connection. It relates to a linguistic rule about what we are entitled to say in various circumstances. And this rule gets its importance from the fact that knowledge-claims are bound up with decision-making. They say, in effect, “trust me – and not just because I’m certain, but because I have good reasons for my certainty.” Above all, they are embedded in </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">activity</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">, like moves in a game. Reasons are given, questions get answered, decisions get made.</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{83}" paraid="104866901" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"></span></span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{87}" paraid="1716475387" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Knowledge and Pain</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{87}" paraid="1716475387" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{93}" paraid="263949429" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">The point of all this is that the concept of knowledge doesn’t connect up willy-nilly with anything which might be called a fact. It has its life within a particular context – it has, we might say, a </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">jurisdiction</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">. And when we try to apply a concept outside of its jurisdiction, the result is nonsense. Wittgenstein gives an example of this in §268:</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{103}" paraid="562498821" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 48px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">Why can’t my right hand give my </span><span class="NormalTextRun ContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2 BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,PD94bWwgdmVyc2lvbj0iMS4wIiBlbmNvZGluZz0iVVRGLTgiPz4KPHN2ZyB3aWR0aD0iNXB4IiBoZWlnaHQ9IjNweCIgdmlld0JveD0iMCAwIDUgMyIgdmVyc2lvbj0iMS4xIiB4bWxucz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMjAwMC9zdmciIHhtbG5zOnhsaW5rPSJodHRwOi8vd3d3LnczLm9yZy8xOTk5L3hsaW5rIj4KICAgIDwhLS0gR2VuZXJhdG9yOiBTa2V0Y2ggNTUuMiAoNzgxODEpIC0gaHR0cHM6Ly9za2V0Y2hhcHAuY29tIC0tPgogICAgPHRpdGxlPmdyYW1tYXJfZG91YmxlX2xpbmU8L3RpdGxlPgogICAgPGRlc2M+Q3JlYXRlZCB3aXRoIFNrZXRjaC48L2Rlc2M+CiAgICA8ZyBpZD0iZ3JhbW1hcl9kb3VibGVfbGluZSIgc3Ryb2tlPSJub25lIiBzdHJva2Utd2lkdGg9IjEiIGZpbGw9Im5vbmUiIGZpbGwtcnVsZT0iZXZlbm9kZCIgc3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA9InJvdW5kIj4KICAgICAgICA8ZyBpZD0iR3JhbW1hci1UaWxlLUNvcHkiIHN0cm9rZT0iIzMzNTVGRiI+CiAgICAgICAgICAgIDxwYXRoIGQ9Ik0wLDAuNSBMNSwwLjUiIGlkPSJMaW5lLTItQ29weS0xMCI+PC9wYXRoPgogICAgICAgICAgICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNMCwyLjUgTDUsMi41IiBpZD0iTGluZS0yLUNvcHktMTEiPjwvcGF0aD4KICAgICAgICA8L2c+CiAgICA8L2c+Cjwvc3ZnPg==")); background-position: left bottom; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">left hand</span><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> money? – My right hand can put it into my left hand. My right hand can write a deed of gift, and my left hand a receipt. – But the further practical consequences would not be those of a gift.</span></span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559685":720,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{113}" paraid="1081269294" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{113}" paraid="1081269294" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">In that section he’s criticising the idea that we can give ourselves a private definition of a word, but the point holds good regarding knowledge and pain. Since there’s no such thing as finding out that I’m in pain, no such thing as a good (or bad) reason for claiming to be in pain, and no such thing as making a mistake about my being in pain, it achieves nothing to say that I know that I’m in pain. In such a case we are attempting to use the word “know” outside of its conceptual jurisdiction. But since the use stops at the border, the meaning stops as well, and all we’re left with is nonsense. (Cf, </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">The Big Typescript</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">, §90: “The aim of philosophy is to erect a wall at the point where language stops anyway”.)</span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{113}" paraid="1081269294" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{123}" paraid="2127320780" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Here we might object that just because “I know I am in pain” doesn’t achieve anything, that doesn’t mean it isn’t true. Of course, this just restates the initial claim that all facts can be divided into “known” and “unknown”. It amounts to a stubborn refusal to engage with Wittgenstein’s observation that meaning arises through use. But let’s go along with it for the moment and see what happens. Suppose we decided to allow “I know I’m in pain”, and to change “She is in pain” and “I know she’s in pain” to “I believe she is in pain” – what would be the outcome?</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{129}" paraid="552683652" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"></span></span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{133}" paraid="1192800449" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">I Know I’m in Pain</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{133}" paraid="1192800449" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{139}" paraid="559717378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">Regarding “I know I’m in pain” we would have a useless statement. Why is that a problem? After all, a lot of what I know doesn’t seem particularly useful. For example, I know that the radio is on because I switched it on a few minutes ago and I can hear music coming out of it. But </span><span class="NormalTextRun ContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2 BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: left bottom; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">so</span><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> what? And likewise with pain: isn’t the reason we never say “I know I’m in pain” not because it’s nonsense, but because it’s so obviously true that there’s no need to mention it? This comparison, however, rests on a mistake. When I said I knew the radio was on I was able to give reasons justifying my knowledge-claim. I was able to say </span></span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">how</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> I knew. But it’s nonsense to say I know I’m in pain because I feel it, since feeling pain is not a </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">clue</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> that I’m pain; it is </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">being</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> in pain. So “I know I’m in pain because I can feel it” doesn’t equate to “I know the radio is on because I can hear it”. Rather, it equates to “I know the radio is on because the radio is on”. And that’s nonsense.</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{139}" paraid="559717378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{165}" paraid="1362513309" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Once we realise that “I know I’m in pain because I can feel it” amounts to saying “I know I’m in pain because I’m in pain”, it’s easier to see why “I know I’m in pain” is nonsense rather than trivially true. This in turn highlights the categorical distinction between a nonsensical statement like “I know I’m in pain” and a trivially true one such as “I know the radio is on” or “I know my name is Philip”. It is </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">possible</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> for a trivially true statement to be informative in certain circumstances – </span><span class="NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlSpellingErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: left bottom; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">eg</span><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">, I might confirm that I knew my name to show I had recovered from amnesia. Such statements are only contingently useless. But since “I know I’m in pain” is nonsense, it is </span></span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">necessarily</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> useless. Someone in the grip of dementia can fail to recognise his own children, but he cannot be unaware of his pain. This is not because being aware of pain is so easy to do (even easier than recognising your children) but because there’s </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">no such thing</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> as being in pain and not feeling it. Feeling pain and being in pain are the same thing. And that, of course, is a </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">grammatical</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> remark.</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{165}" paraid="1362513309" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{191}" paraid="760545802" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Why is it so easy to overlook this rather simple point? Well for one thing, denying the validity of “I know I’m in pain” can be misconstrued as the assertion that we </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">don’t</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> know we’re in pain – that we’re unaware of our own pains. But Wittgenstein doesn’t claim that “I know I’m in pain” is </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">false</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">; he claims it’s nonsense. The concept of knowledge has no jurisdiction when it comes to the first-person ascription of pain.</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{191}" paraid="760545802" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{205}" paraid="949678455" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Perhaps another reason is that it seems such a small, harmless step from “I know she’s in pain” to “I know I’m in pain”. Both share the same form, and this disguises the gulf that lies between them. True, the distinction between first- and second-person cases is recognised by the object-in-a-box model, but it is inevitably misdescribed in terms of possession. I have an object in my consciousness that I cannot share with you directly. Therefore, only </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">I</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> can know I have it; you’ll just have to take my word for it. But “this makes the difference between the meanings look </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">too slight</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">” (§339), for we are not talking about a difference in degree (“the pain in my consciousness is even more private than the gold in my secret vault”), but a </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">conceptual</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> difference. You cannot have a pain in my foot – not because it’s too difficult, but because there’s no such thing. Again, that’s a grammatical remark, and it’s what lies behind Wittgenstein’s comment in §248:</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{223}" paraid="254605167" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 48px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">The sentence “Sensations are private” is comparable to “One plays patience by oneself”.</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559685":720,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{223}" paraid="254605167" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 48px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559685":720,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{229}" paraid="1314068088" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">The gold in my vault just happens to be private, but insofar as it makes sense to call sensations “private” at all, they are so by </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">definition</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">. (Why might it not make sense? Because here I think we are borrowing the word “private” from its everyday use in a somewhat figurative way. I want to say that if a secret cannot </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">possibly</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> be revealed then it isn’t actually a secret at all; the concept of privacy hangs together with the possibility of revelation.)</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{229}" paraid="1314068088" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{243}" paraid="342547094" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">In view of all this, must “I know I’m in pain” be stricken from the record? Not entirely. Taken as a straightforward knowledge-claim it’s nonsense, but it could still have some peripheral uses. Wittgenstein mentions a couple of these in §246 and §247. For a start, it could be a kind of joke (§246) – </span><span class="NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlSpellingErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: left bottom; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">eg</span><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">, a facetious rejoinder to someone who pointed out to me that I was hurt.</span></span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{4cc6909f-55b2-4846-98d6-c0888d11835f}{243}" paraid="342547094" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{8fa2d428-0e9a-4e5b-b755-d73f862e4d79}{6}" paraid="800680363" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Secondly, in §247, Wittgenstein suggests a use of “you know” in relation to intention which might equally well apply in the case of pain. A footballer goes down in the box, screaming and clutching his ankle. His opponents complain that he’s faking it to buy a penalty. Here we might say, “Only he can know if he’s really in pain”. But, again, there’s no suggestion that the player has found out he’s in pain. Rather, it’s a comment about whether or not he’s pretending, and rests on the fact that if he </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">is</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> in pain then he can’t be unaware of it, whereas others might assume he’s pretending but be wrong.</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{8fa2d428-0e9a-4e5b-b755-d73f862e4d79}{6}" paraid="800680363" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{8fa2d428-0e9a-4e5b-b755-d73f862e4d79}{34}" paraid="721857582" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Thirdly, “I know I’m in pain” might mean “I know that what I’m currently feeling is called ‘pain’”. That is, I know the meaning of the word “pain”. (Cf §381: “How do I recognise that this colour is red? – One answer would be: ‘I have learnt English.’”)</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{8fa2d428-0e9a-4e5b-b755-d73f862e4d79}{34}" paraid="721857582" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{8fa2d428-0e9a-4e5b-b755-d73f862e4d79}{40}" paraid="417292410" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Finally, we might allow it as a kind of </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">honorary</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> proposition – a phrase that achieved nothing but was accepted as an ornament. Or perhaps as a stylised gesture towards the intimate relation between ourselves and our pain. In either case, of course, it would be a figure of speech rather than a genuine assertion of knowledge (Cf §295).</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{8fa2d428-0e9a-4e5b-b755-d73f862e4d79}{50}" paraid="493495017" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"></span></span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{8fa2d428-0e9a-4e5b-b755-d73f862e4d79}{54}" paraid="93988277" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">I Know </span><span class="NormalTextRun ContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2 BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: left bottom; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">She’s</span><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> in Pain</span></span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{8fa2d428-0e9a-4e5b-b755-d73f862e4d79}{54}" paraid="93988277" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{8fa2d428-0e9a-4e5b-b755-d73f862e4d79}{64}" paraid="667572562" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Things don’t turn out much better when we consider the proposed switch from “I know she’s in pain” to “I believe she’s in pain”. Whereas “I know I’m pain” has no straightforward application in our lives, that’s not true of these two phrases, and there’s an important distinction between them.</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{8fa2d428-0e9a-4e5b-b755-d73f862e4d79}{64}" paraid="667572562" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{8fa2d428-0e9a-4e5b-b755-d73f862e4d79}{70}" paraid="844314774" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Suppose a friend is limping and groaning. I say that I don’t believe she’s in pain, but you reply that you know she is because you saw her get injured, you’ve seen the x-ray of her torn ligament, etc. This convinces me, and changes my attitude towards her; I become sympathetic rather than dismissive. Here we can see the sort of thing that differentiates “believing” from “knowing”, and what hinges upon the distinction.</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{8fa2d428-0e9a-4e5b-b755-d73f862e4d79}{70}" paraid="844314774" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{8fa2d428-0e9a-4e5b-b755-d73f862e4d79}{76}" paraid="1021116901" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">If we outlaw “I know she’s in pain” and insist on using “I believe” instead, we’re still going to want to distinguish between a well-founded claim and a guess. We’re going to want to make it clear that we’re speaking from a position of certainty rather than doubt or suspicion. </span><span class="NormalTextRun ContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2 BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: left bottom; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">So</span><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> to make things easier, let’s pronounce “believe” differently in the two cases. “</span></span><span class="TextRun Underlined BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: underline; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">be</span></span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">lieve” will indicate well-founded certainty, and “be</span><span class="TextRun Underlined BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: underline; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">lieve</span></span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">” will indicate doubt. But this just amounts to using two different words: “be</span><span class="TextRun Underlined BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: underline; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">lieve</span></span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">” equates to what was formerly “believe” and “</span><span class="TextRun Underlined BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: underline; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">be</span></span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">lieve” equates to “know”. We’ve gone round in a circle.</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{8fa2d428-0e9a-4e5b-b755-d73f862e4d79}{76}" paraid="1021116901" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{8fa2d428-0e9a-4e5b-b755-d73f862e4d79}{102}" paraid="1377246029" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">The moral of the story is that linguistic usage isn’t simply a matter of free-floating syntactical rules. It is bound up with </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">how we live</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">. And unless it’s accompanied by a requisite change in behaviour, a new usage just swaps one way of talking for another (§303). That’s why “I know I’m in pain” can’t get a real purchase in our lives, no matter how tempting it is as a form of expression. And that’s why extending “I believe” to cases where we currently say “I know” is doomed to failure. To make it work, we’d have to doubt in cases where we do not currently doubt; we’d have to be sceptical towards evidence which, actually, we routinely find convincing.</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{8fa2d428-0e9a-4e5b-b755-d73f862e4d79}{112}" paraid="1828370065" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"></span></span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{8fa2d428-0e9a-4e5b-b755-d73f862e4d79}{116}" paraid="1532475194" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">How to Doubt Things</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{8fa2d428-0e9a-4e5b-b755-d73f862e4d79}{116}" paraid="1532475194" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{8fa2d428-0e9a-4e5b-b755-d73f862e4d79}{122}" paraid="816723485" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Here we might argue that just because we </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">don’t</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> doubt, that doesn’t mean we </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">shouldn’t</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">. And the key witness for this line of thought is pretending. We can pretend to be hurt when we’re not and act like we’re fine when we’re in pain. Doesn’t it follow from this that we at least </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">ought</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> to reserve judgement in any particular case? After all, how can we say we </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">know</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> someone is in pain when we might be wrong?</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{8fa2d428-0e9a-4e5b-b755-d73f862e4d79}{122}" paraid="816723485" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{8fa2d428-0e9a-4e5b-b755-d73f862e4d79}{144}" paraid="175769103" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Against this, in §249, Wittgenstein presents the example of a smiling baby and asks (with heavy irony) if perhaps we shouldn’t be more sceptical about its happiness. The absurdity of this suggestion points in a number of different directions. First, it is incorrect to suppose that </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">any</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> particular case is open to doubt. Doubt’s jurisdiction is more limited than that. And the boundary comes with the guileless expression of feeling in obvious cases. The behaviour of others is evidence of their state, but this doesn’t mean we always </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">deduce</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> their mood from their behaviour. A baby’s smile is not evidence in </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">that</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> sense. Indeed, it would be more accurate to say that the happiness was </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">right there</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> in the smile. (Cf </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Zettel</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">, §220: “Do you look into </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">yourself</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> in order to recognise the fury in </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">his</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> face? It is there as clearly as in your own breast”.)</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{8fa2d428-0e9a-4e5b-b755-d73f862e4d79}{144}" paraid="175769103" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{8fa2d428-0e9a-4e5b-b755-d73f862e4d79}{178}" paraid="2128483652" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">The baby’s smile is a natural expression, and our reaction to it is equally natural. This comes first. It is the foundation upon which our more sophisticated behaviour is based. As Wittgenstein remarks in §249, “Lying is a language-game that needs to be learned like any other one”. The idea of a baby deceiving us is absurd because babies lack the behavioural and linguistic framework within which deception becomes intelligible. The same is true of the dog in §250, which can no more be sincere than it can lie. (Wittgenstein gets his animal behaviour wrong here, by the way. Dogs don’t howl when they’re in pain. A more pertinent example would be Killdeers, which lure predators away from their nests by acting as if they had a broken wing. This typically gets described in anthropomorphic terms: the bird “pretends” to be injured, “fools” the predator, etc. But, literally speaking, there is no </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">scheming</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> going on. It’s purely instinctive behaviour. And when a Killdeer really does have an injured </span><span class="NormalTextRun ContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2 BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: left bottom; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">wing</span><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> it’s not being honest.)</span></span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{8fa2d428-0e9a-4e5b-b755-d73f862e4d79}{178}" paraid="2128483652" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{8fa2d428-0e9a-4e5b-b755-d73f862e4d79}{188}" paraid="1650977652" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">The importance of natural reactions extends into our more complex forms of behaviour. If I see someone wince, I might doubt whether they’ve felt a painful twinge or remembered something unpleasant (or they might just be pretending). But if I see them scream after being smashed in the face by a cricket ball, I’m not going to doubt that they’re in pain – and neither am I going to deduce it. I will say that </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">of course</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> they’re in pain, and anyone who doubts it is stupid.</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{8fa2d428-0e9a-4e5b-b755-d73f862e4d79}{188}" paraid="1650977652" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{8fa2d428-0e9a-4e5b-b755-d73f862e4d79}{198}" paraid="494555428" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">It’s worth noting however, that it’s at least </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">possible</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> I might be wrong: the whole thing might be an incredibly elaborate ruse involving a fake cricket ball, fake blood, etc. So it’s possible that I might doubt even here, but only if I had some reason to do so (</span><span class="NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlSpellingErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: left bottom; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">eg</span><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">, I’d been tipped off that a practical joke was going to be played on me at some point during the day).</span></span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" paraeid="{8fa2d428-0e9a-4e5b-b755-d73f862e4d79}{198}" paraid="494555428" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" lang="EN-GB" paraeid="{07bdedf3-cb2e-4f9d-8194-fd9bb73c4ea6}{102}" paraid="306368075" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">This basic pattern holds true in less obvious cases as well. If a friend truthfully tells me he’s going home because he has a headache then I know that he’s in pain. But how do I know he’s being truthful? Well, there are various criteria for honesty which come into play. For example, I might check what he did after he left me. If he took an aspirin and went to bed that will speak strongly in his favour. But if he went clubbing I will probably conclude he was lying about his headache. However, the issue of deceit will normally only arise if I have a </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">reason</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> to doubt my friend. Without that, I will simply take his word for it. This doesn’t mean I’m being naïve or credulous; it’s simply how the language-game is played here (</span><span class="NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlSpellingErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: left bottom; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">cf</span><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> PPF §331). Someone who persistently doubted everything he was told without any good reason wouldn’t be praised for his intellectual rigour. We would consider him mentally ill.</span></span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" lang="EN-GB" paraeid="{07bdedf3-cb2e-4f9d-8194-fd9bb73c4ea6}{102}" paraid="306368075" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" lang="EN-GB" paraeid="{31d61bff-1545-4487-85c0-dc3bed24ec7e}{213}" paraid="794985438" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Doubt, like knowledge, requires grounds. Doubt, like knowledge, has both antecedents and consequences. It has a function. With the baby and the dog, however, it’s a different matter. Doubt has no purchase here because our certainty is non-deductive. It is not based on reasons or past experience; rather, it is characteristic of our basic way of living. This comes first, deduction and doubts come later.</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" lang="EN-GB" paraeid="{31d61bff-1545-4487-85c0-dc3bed24ec7e}{213}" paraid="794985438" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph BCX0 SCXW250321378" lang="EN-GB" paraeid="{07bdedf3-cb2e-4f9d-8194-fd9bb73c4ea6}{125}" paraid="1923756731" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">All this is not primarily about the natural phases of human development; the fundamental point is a logical one. “[O]</span><span class="NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlSpellingErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: left bottom; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">ur</span><span class="NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">doubts</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> depend on the fact that some propositions are exempt from doubt, are as it were like hinges on which those turn. […] But it isn’t that the situation is like this: We just </span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">can’t</span><span class="TextRun BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> investigate everything, and for that reason we are forced to rest content with assumption. If I want the door to turn, the hinges must stay put” (OC §§341-344). Without certainty, doubt cannot perform its function, and so “A doubt that doubted everything would not be a doubt” (OC §450).</span><span class="EOP BCX0 SCXW250321378" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div>Philip Cartwrighthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11458571502536123264noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6701420428167031490.post-82332455416143645132021-08-20T20:48:00.001+01:002021-08-20T20:54:49.760+01:00Setting Up the Private Language Argument: §§243-245<p> <span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">It’s worth looking closely at the first few sections of what’s called “the private language argument”, since this is where Wittgenstein sets out his stall and gives some important clues about the significance of what’s to follow.</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b389c64f-c5ea-48f2-9233-d42a177046ca}{186}" paraid="151344437" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">§243 begins with a reminder of an obvious fact: some of our linguist activity is directed at ourselves. We can encourage ourselves, give ourselves orders, etc, etc. In short, we often talk to ourselves – either out loud or internally. We might call this “private” in the sense that it’s not about communicating with other people. Next, however, Wittgenstein wonders about the possibility of a more radically private language: one that’s only concerned with giving voice to our immediate private experiences so that it could not be explained to, or understood by, another person.</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b389c64f-c5ea-48f2-9233-d42a177046ca}{186}" paraid="151344437" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b389c64f-c5ea-48f2-9233-d42a177046ca}{192}" paraid="572781227" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Already there are a few questions we might want to ask about this setup:</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b389c64f-c5ea-48f2-9233-d42a177046ca}{192}" paraid="572781227" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><div class="ListContainerWrapper SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><ul class="BulletListStyle1 SCXW252549575 BCX0" role="list" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; cursor: text; font-family: verdana; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><li aria-setsize="-1" class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" data-aria-level="1" data-aria-posinset="1" data-font="Symbol" data-leveltext="" data-listid="1" role="listitem" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; display: block; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b389c64f-c5ea-48f2-9233-d42a177046ca}{198}" paraid="537235741" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">1. What does this have to do with the preceding sections of the book? There seems to be an abrupt jump between §242 and §243, as if Wittgenstein was starting an entirely new line of enquiry. If he isn’t, what’s the connection?</span></p></li><li aria-setsize="-1" class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" data-aria-level="1" data-aria-posinset="1" data-font="Symbol" data-leveltext="" data-listid="1" role="listitem" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; display: block; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b389c64f-c5ea-48f2-9233-d42a177046ca}{198}" paraid="537235741" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></p></li><li aria-setsize="-1" class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" data-aria-level="1" data-aria-posinset="2" data-font="Symbol" data-leveltext="" data-listid="1" role="listitem" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; display: block; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b389c64f-c5ea-48f2-9233-d42a177046ca}{205}" paraid="1720447238" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">2. Why does he begin with ordinary private linguistic use and then </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">contrast</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> this with the more radical version? Why not just begin with the radical version and save some time?</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"134233279":true,"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></li><li aria-setsize="-1" class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" data-aria-level="1" data-aria-posinset="2" data-font="Symbol" data-leveltext="" data-listid="1" role="listitem" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; display: block; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b389c64f-c5ea-48f2-9233-d42a177046ca}{205}" paraid="1720447238" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"134233279":true,"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></li><li aria-setsize="-1" class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" data-aria-level="1" data-aria-posinset="3" data-font="Symbol" data-leveltext="" data-listid="1" role="listitem" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; display: block; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b389c64f-c5ea-48f2-9233-d42a177046ca}{216}" paraid="386872957" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">3. Why would no-one else be able to understand the sensation language? After all (as Wittgenstein himself admits), we describe our sensations to each other all the time. What makes the private language private?</span></p></li><li aria-setsize="-1" class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" data-aria-level="1" data-aria-posinset="3" data-font="Symbol" data-leveltext="" data-listid="1" role="listitem" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; display: block; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b389c64f-c5ea-48f2-9233-d42a177046ca}{216}" paraid="386872957" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"134233279":true,"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></li><li aria-setsize="-1" class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" data-aria-level="1" data-aria-posinset="4" data-font="Symbol" data-leveltext="" data-listid="1" role="listitem" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; display: block; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b389c64f-c5ea-48f2-9233-d42a177046ca}{223}" paraid="1033903033" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">4. Why is Wittgenstein asking us to consider this at all? What hangs on the possibility (or otherwise) of a sensation language that could only ever be understood by the speaker?</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"134233279":true,"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></li><li aria-setsize="-1" class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" data-aria-level="1" data-aria-posinset="4" data-font="Symbol" data-leveltext="" data-listid="1" role="listitem" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; display: block; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b389c64f-c5ea-48f2-9233-d42a177046ca}{223}" paraid="1033903033" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"134233279":true,"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></li><li aria-setsize="-1" class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" data-aria-level="1" data-aria-posinset="4" data-font="Symbol" data-leveltext="" data-listid="1" role="listitem" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; display: block; font-family: Calibri, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b389c64f-c5ea-48f2-9233-d42a177046ca}{223}" paraid="1033903033" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"134233279":true,"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">5. If the idea of a private language is to be rejected, what alternative does Wittgenstein offer?</span><span face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="background-color: transparent; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p></li></ul></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b389c64f-c5ea-48f2-9233-d42a177046ca}{230}" paraid="755391814" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b389c64f-c5ea-48f2-9233-d42a177046ca}{230}" paraid="755391814" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">Let's consider them in order.</span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b389c64f-c5ea-48f2-9233-d42a177046ca}{230}" paraid="755391814" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b389c64f-c5ea-48f2-9233-d42a177046ca}{236}" paraid="171938060" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">1. Rule-following and private linguistic use</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b389c64f-c5ea-48f2-9233-d42a177046ca}{236}" paraid="171938060" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b389c64f-c5ea-48f2-9233-d42a177046ca}{242}" paraid="994511002" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Wittgenstein ends his discussion of rule-following (§§185-242) with the observation that language as a means of communication is grounded in shared judgements or reactions (§242). When the pupil in §185 suddenly starts “adding 2” by writing “1000, 1004, 1008...” and insists that this is going on the same as when he wrote “100, 102, 104”, </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">reasons</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> are no help to us. His fundamental judgement-reactions simply differ from ours, and unless we can train him to share </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">our</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun ContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2 SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: 0% 100%; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">reactions</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> we will be left staring at each other in mutual incomprehension. And this, Wittgenstein maintains, is true of language more generally.</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b389c64f-c5ea-48f2-9233-d42a177046ca}{242}" paraid="994511002" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{5}" paraid="1671366963" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">His point stands as a heavy blow to the referentialist account, which views language as a system of correlations between objects and words, grounded in definitions (</span><span class="NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlSpellingErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: 0% 100%; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">eg</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">, ostensive definitions) which are so powerfully immediate that we are </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">compelled</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> to understand them. Wittgenstein’s rule-following analysis attempts to show that this compulsion is a sublime myth. Explanations (reasons, definitions) do not end in a quasi-magical super-explanation; they end in </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">action</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> (§217).</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{5}" paraid="1671366963" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{23}" paraid="2006814605" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">But the referentialist is not finished yet. For we might grant that shared reactions were necessary for communication but question whether communication was </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">essential</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> to language. Obviously, no-one is going to deny that we </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">do</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> communicate through language, and that this is tremendously important. But is it an essential feature or a useful by-product? After all, at least some of the time our linguistic usage is not directed towards others; it is directed to ourselves: we talk to ourselves, give ourselves orders, and so on. Doesn’t this suggest that communication is not an intrinsic feature?</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{23}" paraid="2006814605" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{37}" paraid="1675007702" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">And this is the starting point of the private language discussion.</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{43}" paraid="2135733642" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"></span></span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{47}" paraid="728933108" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">2. Ordinary private linguistic use</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{47}" paraid="728933108" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{53}" paraid="1795175037" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Could there be a language that wasn’t used as a means of communication? Perhaps surprisingly, Wittgenstein’s answer is yes – but with an important qualification. At the start of §243 he gives examples of the various ways we direct language towards ourselves rather than others: we encourage ourselves, give orders, blame and punish ourselves, ask ourselves questions and answer them. He then goes on to imagine people who only used language in this way; they never talked to each other, just to themselves. Indeed, we could go further and imagine a solitary person doing this, rather than a community, so that it was obvious his language wasn’t outwardly directed.</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{53}" paraid="1795175037" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{59}" paraid="489088931" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">So far so good, but now comes the qualification. Wittgenstein points out that because this language is woven into the speaker’s activities an observer would be able to translate it. And when he had done that, he could use it to communicate with the solitary speaker. (</span><span class="NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlSpellingErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: 0% 100%; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">cf</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> §206: “Shared human behaviour is the system of reference by means of which we interpret an unknown language”.)</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{59}" paraid="489088931" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{65}" paraid="1464677613" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Why is this important? Because it suggests that even if communication isn’t essential to language, communicability </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">is</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">. That’s no good for the referentialist, because it still grounds language in action rather than logical compulsion. If the solitary speaker’s words weren’t </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">systematically</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> woven into </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">broadly consistent patterns of behaviour</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">, then we’d have no right to conclude he was using language at all (</span><span class="NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlSpellingErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: 0% 100%; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">cf</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> §207).</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{65}" paraid="1464677613" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{87}" paraid="698351702" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">What the referentialist needs, therefore, is a language which not only </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">isn’t</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> used as a form of communication, but couldn’t </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">possibly</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> be used in that way. And that’s where the </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">radically</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> private language comes in.</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{105}" paraid="757905071" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"></span></span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{109}" paraid="336257685" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">3. The nature of a radically private language</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{109}" paraid="336257685" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{115}" paraid="2145596342" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">A language concerned solely with our “inner lives” – sensations, thoughts, moods, etc – seems the ideal candidate for a radically private language because, at least on the face of it, our inner lives are just as radically private as the language we want to construct. If I have an apple in a box, I can keep it a secret, in which case it’s private in the ordinary sense of the word. But I might also show it to you, or you might discover it by yourself. </span><span class="NormalTextRun ContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2 SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: 0% 100%; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">So</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> in the “outer” world, objects are only ever </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">contingently</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> private. My sensations and thoughts, however, are a different matter. They are shut away in a box (my mind) that cannot </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">possibly</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> be opened. Although I can tell you about them, I cannot literally show them to you or bring you to experience them as I do. Nor can you discover them through investigation; you cannot break into my mind and think my thoughts as though they were your own. Our inner lives are </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">necessarily</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> private.</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{115}" paraid="2145596342" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{137}" paraid="957154354" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">We might call this the “object-in-a-box" account of mind, and if we accept it the prospect for a radically private language seems promising. By focussing my attention inwards, I associate words with my various thoughts and sensations, and combine those words into descriptions of my inner life. That’s a language, right? But it’s hard to see how this language could possibly be explained to, or translated by, someone else. If I use the word “</span><span class="NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlSpellingErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: 0% 100%; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">plig</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">” to mean “apple”, I can explain myself by pointing at an apple. But how can I explain “</span><span class="NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlSpellingErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: 0% 100%; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">plig</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">” if it refers to a particular sensation? I can’t point to that with my hand. All I can do is focus my attention on the sensation and repeat “</span><span class="NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlSpellingErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: 0% 100%; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">plig</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">” with a strong emphasis – and that is no help at all. My sounds will mean nothing to you – but </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">I</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> will understand them.</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{137}" paraid="957154354" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{147}" paraid="1663741422" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">At this point, the private language is in danger of becoming a victim of its own success. Because if language is essentially a matter of combining words into descriptions, and our inner lives are necessarily private, then it’s hard to see how we could ever talk to other people about these things. To put it more broadly, if language is not essentially communicable then how can we even attempt to use it as a means of communication? </span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{147}" paraid="1663741422" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{153}" paraid="2067445375" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">And yet, as Wittgenstein points out in both §243 and §244, we talk about these things all the time. We can hardly bring ourselves to shut up about our thoughts and feelings. So how do we bridge this seemingly unbridgeable gulf? For the referentialist, the answer is that our inner lives are </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">contingently</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> linked to our behaviour. Luckily, our pleasant and painful sensations happen to coexist with distinctive physical movements, and these provide clues as to what’s happening inside us. </span><span class="NormalTextRun ContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2 SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: 0% 100%; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">So</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> if I just say “</span><span class="NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlSpellingErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: 0% 100%; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">plig</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">” you have no idea what’s going on, but if I say “</span><span class="NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlSpellingErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: 0% 100%; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">plig</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">” and </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">wince</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">, you can deduce that I’m probably talking about a sensation that’s accompanied by wincing when it occurs in you.</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{153}" paraid="2067445375" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{179}" paraid="1284896433" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">This brings behaviour into the picture without making it an essential feature, so it safeguards the claim that a radically private language is possible – and, therefore, that communicability is not an essential feature of language. As it happens, human beings accompany their sensations with characteristic behaviour, but (logically speaking) things might have been otherwise. In that case, sensation-language would still have been possible, but it would not have been communicable. Therefore, language is not essentially communicable. QED.</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{179}" paraid="1284896433" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{185}" paraid="1163932809" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">It’s worth noting that this argument depends on the “object-in-a-box" account of mind, which renders our inner lives essentially private and inserts a categorical boundary between sensations and their physical expression. </span><span class="NormalTextRun ContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2 SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: 0% 100%; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">So</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> the idea that sensations can be logically divorced from behaviour is being used to support the claim that language can be logically divorced from behaviour.</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{185}" paraid="1163932809" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{191}" paraid="784944869" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">We have confronted this model before in the discussion of understanding as an inner object or state, so it shouldn’t come as a surprise that Wittgenstein attempts to undermine it again in the private language discussion. But the task seems more daunting this time round; we might admit that understanding cannot be divorced from its expression, but surely our sensations are a different matter! They are just </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">there</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> as a brute fact of life, whether or not we express them through cries of pain or murmurs of contentment. And if sensations are basically separate from their expression, why can’t we have a language describing them which is equally separate from such behaviour?</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{191}" paraid="784944869" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{201}" paraid="223449407" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">One final point about the radically private language. It seems to me that Wittgenstein’s extensive use of pain as an example is connected with the need to tackle the object-in-a-box model head-on. For of all the possible candidates, pain is the most concrete and therefore the most object-like. Suppose instead we chose to focus on jealousy. Jealousy is an emotion and, as such, is bound up with feelings and sensations. From this, you might think we could identify a sensation – or a cluster of sensations – labelled “jealousy”, but actually it’s not that simple. Which feelings are involved in a case of jealousy (sexual jealousy, for example)? I might list anger, frustration, despair and self-loathing, but these are also feelings I associate with watching a Transformers movie. What then differentiates the case of jealousy from exposure to the work of Michael Bay? If anything, it’s the </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">circumstances</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> in which they are embedded. That, of course, moves us outside the mind-box and ruins the analogy on which we are constructing our private language. Pain, by contrast, is much more straightforward. It is as tangible and discreet as a brick – if anything deserves to be called an inner-object, surely it is pain. </span><span class="NormalTextRun ContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2 SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: 0% 100%; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">So</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> in tackling this paradigm example, Wittgenstein is confronting his adversary on its strongest ground. If it fails there, then the rest stands little chance.</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{215}" paraid="229151151" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"></span></span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{219}" paraid="619717352" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">4. The significance of the private language discussion</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{219}" paraid="619717352" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{225}" paraid="1671466552" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Actually, I’ve already said quite a bit about the significance of the private language discussion: how it relates to, and builds upon, the preceding discussion of rule-following. It’s a continuation of the struggle between two conflicting views of language: language as an activity and language as a system of reference by which the world is described.</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{225}" paraid="1671466552" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{231}" paraid="10446340" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">But now the struggle becomes directly and unavoidably entangled with the object-in-a-box model of our inner lives. Since referentialism depends on the idea that language is founded by associating words with objects, it more or less commits us to viewing our sensations, thoughts, etc, as just another </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">type</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> of object. Otherwise, how could we talk about them at all? Of course, these mental objects may have certain distinctive (and rather mysterious) features, but the same linguistic structure must hold good in both cases: object and name (</span><span class="NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlSpellingErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: 0% 100%; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">cf</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> §293c).</span></span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{231}" paraid="10446340" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{245}" paraid="1365080689" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">This connection drags in its wake a whole range of important philosophical ideas. The object-in-a-box model forms the basic theory of mind for philosophers as diverse as Descartes, Locke, Hume, Kant, Hegel, Husserl, James, Russel, Wittgenstein (in the </span><span class="NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlSpellingErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: 0% 100%; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">Tractatus</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">), Nagel and Chalmers. It is therefore bound up with perennial issues such as the problem of other minds, dualism, idealism, solipsism and the so-called “hard” problem of consciousness. </span></span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{245}" paraid="1365080689" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{251}" paraid="1397408915" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Furthermore, it brings under consideration materialist theories like behaviourism and functionalism which oppose the object-in-a-box model. Such theories take this model as the correct description of what the mind would be like </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">if there were such a thing</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">, argue that it is either incoherent or irrelevant, and conclude therefore that the concept of mind is </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">itself</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> incoherent or irrelevant. Talk of our inner lives is just so much “folk psychology” which must be translated into bare bodily movements and/or activity in the brain.</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{b19331cb-fedd-4de8-9ceb-e18c012b7512}{251}" paraid="1397408915" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{6811801e-e257-494a-b98e-6d198718f415}{10}" paraid="357358487" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">But for Wittgenstein, the incoherence of the object-in-a-box model stems from a failure to understand the workings of language. Implicitly (Descartes) or explicitly (Locke), the model relies upon a referentialist theory which fatally misdescribes the concept we are trying to understand. The materialist then rejects this misdescription under the illusion that she is rejecting the concept itself. The result is a nonsensical response to a nonsensical problem. (Indeed, the connection runs deeper still. Both §270 and §293 suggest that behaviourism is what you inevitably end up with when you try to put the referentialist account of sensation-language into action.)</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{6811801e-e257-494a-b98e-6d198718f415}{10}" paraid="357358487" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{6811801e-e257-494a-b98e-6d198718f415}{16}" paraid="1375036863" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">We have already seen Wittgenstein’s response to all this. At a detailed level, it involves the claim that meaning arises through use rather than via the association of words with the objects. When this idea is presented in §43, it might seem a rather technical, esoteric point, but its philosophical ramifications are far-reaching and revolutionary. Consider, for example, how the concept of use goes hand-in-hand with the concept of agency. The latter is </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">presupposed</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> by the former. An eagle can use a thermal updraft to climb into the sky, but a feather plucked from the eagle’s wing cannot do that, no matter how high it’s carried. The notion of use </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">makes no sense</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> unless it’s embedded in the context of living creatures, with wants and desires, going about their business. Once you recognise that meaning is use, the rest follows in its wake.</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{6811801e-e257-494a-b98e-6d198718f415}{16}" paraid="1375036863" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{6811801e-e257-494a-b98e-6d198718f415}{30}" paraid="1453449612" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">Traditional philosophy typically looks to start from some supposedly elemental feature (sense data, the cogito, simples) and reason its way out from there to the world of people, values, and so on (and when it fails to do so, it is tempted to conclude that such things are an illusion). But if meaning is use – if language can only be understood as an activity – then the whole project is fatally flawed. For if language is grounded in </span><span class="NormalTextRun ContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2 SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: 0% 100%; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">use</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> then so too are rules and ratiocination. They too only make sense within the context of active, living creatures. Hence you cannot use reason to justify the existence of agents and values since they are presupposed in the very idea of reason and justification.</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{6811801e-e257-494a-b98e-6d198718f415}{30}" paraid="1453449612" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{6811801e-e257-494a-b98e-6d198718f415}{40}" paraid="41308780" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">This is why, ultimately, philosophy must be descriptive rather than theory-driven. Philosophical theories are an attempt to justify or condemn our concepts through reason – to show that they are true, or that they are incorrect. But our concepts are not grounded in reason; they are grounded in action. They are neither true nor false; they’re either put into practice or they’re not. The language-game is played or it isn’t, and justification, logic, etc, exist </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">within</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> the language-game. And if you can neither </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">justify</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> nor condemn our concepts then all you can do is </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">describe</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> them.</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{6811801e-e257-494a-b98e-6d198718f415}{40}" paraid="41308780" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{6811801e-e257-494a-b98e-6d198718f415}{58}" paraid="619375568" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">This has been called the “anthropological” approach to philosophy. As I say, at a detailed level it is concerned with meaning as use, but it gets a broader voice in the observation that language is “as much a part of our natural history as walking, eating, drinking, playing” (§25). And perhaps its most direct expression comes in a manuscript remark from 1937:</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{6811801e-e257-494a-b98e-6d198718f415}{64}" paraid="804733238" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 48px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">The origin and the primitive form of the language game is a reaction; only from this can more complicated forms develop.</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559685":720,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{6811801e-e257-494a-b98e-6d198718f415}{70}" paraid="941041115" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 48px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Language – I want to say – is a refinement […] the foundation on which it grows consists in steady ways of living, regular ways of acting.</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559685":720,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{6811801e-e257-494a-b98e-6d198718f415}{76}" paraid="1051693647" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 48px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Its function is determined </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">above all</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> by action, which it accompanies.</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559685":720,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{6811801e-e257-494a-b98e-6d198718f415}{86}" paraid="805815147" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: right; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">MS119, 21 October 1937</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335551550":3,"335551620":3,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{6811801e-e257-494a-b98e-6d198718f415}{92}" paraid="796402342" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{6811801e-e257-494a-b98e-6d198718f415}{92}" paraid="796402342" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">How does this conception play out when we come to the private language discussion?</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{6811801e-e257-494a-b98e-6d198718f415}{98}" paraid="1390262124" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"></span></span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{6811801e-e257-494a-b98e-6d198718f415}{102}" paraid="1235020403" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><i>5. </i></span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">§§244-245: the alternative to the referentialist account of sensation-language</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{6811801e-e257-494a-b98e-6d198718f415}{102}" paraid="1235020403" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{6811801e-e257-494a-b98e-6d198718f415}{108}" paraid="778183156" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">The relevance becomes clear as early as §244, when Wittgenstein offers an alternative to the referentialist account of our sensation-language. It is important that he does so, because he will shortly argue that such an account doesn’t even get off the ground (see, for example, §§258-269). In that case, we’re faced with the question at the start of §244: “how is the connection between the name and thing named set up?” Wittgenstein suggests that the starting point is to graft language onto our natural sensation-reactions. So instead of simply crying, we teach a child to say “Ow!”, “It hurts!”, “I’m in pain!”, etc. </span><span class="NormalTextRun ContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2 SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: 0% 100%; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">Thus</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> the connection begins not with naming or description, but as a refinement of our characteristic expressions of sensation.</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{6811801e-e257-494a-b98e-6d198718f415}{108}" paraid="778183156" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{6811801e-e257-494a-b98e-6d198718f415}{118}" paraid="1789072010" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">The language-game is grounded in action, and this is how it gets a foothold with regard to our sensations. Importantly, at this basic stage, pain and its expression are not conceptually distinct. It is absolutely taken for granted that crying, flinching, etc, are </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">part</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">of</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> being in pain. The behaviour is, so to speak, </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">saturated</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> with sensation; there is no place at this point for doubt.</span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{6811801e-e257-494a-b98e-6d198718f415}{118}" paraid="1789072010" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{6811801e-e257-494a-b98e-6d198718f415}{136}" paraid="1211725798" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Of course, once we’ve established this initial refinement, we can move on to refine things still further. We progress from “I’m in pain” to “I </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">was</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> in pain” – and this latter phrase is certainly more like a description than the former. We can also have “I’m in pain” when we’re </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">not</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> in pain, and “I’m not in pain” when we </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">are</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"> in pain. Here we see the beginning of a conceptual distinction between pain and pain-behaviour. It’s tempting to regard this as a kind of “putting away of childish things”: once we assumed that pain and its expression were one, but now we’ve grown up and know better. This, however, misdescribes the relationship between the two positions. The latter is a useful offshoot; a branch which grows out of the central core. </span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{6811801e-e257-494a-b98e-6d198718f415}{136}" paraid="1211725798" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{6811801e-e257-494a-b98e-6d198718f415}{154}" paraid="1622410350" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">Certainly, it is important to understand that people sometimes pretend to be in pain. But to conclude therefore that pain and pain-behaviour are </span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB">fundamentally</span><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> distinct is to lose sight of the general background within which such pretence takes place. Indeed, the distinction’s limitations are evident in our lives. If I phone in sick, my boss might suspect that I’m pretending to be in pain, but he’s not going to do that if he sees me fall down a flight of stairs (</span><span class="NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-image: var(--urlSpellingErrorV2,url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,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")); background-position: 0% 100%; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">cf</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> §249). Pretending only makes sense within the broader context of guileless expression. Likewise, the very possibility of distinguishing between pain and pain-behaviour rests on the fact that, generally speaking, the two are intrinsically connected. You cannot use reason – or language – to fundamentally pry them apart, for “How can I even attempt to interpose language between the expression of pain and the pain?” (§245)</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{6811801e-e257-494a-b98e-6d198718f415}{154}" paraid="1622410350" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"><br /></span></p><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{6811801e-e257-494a-b98e-6d198718f415}{154}" paraid="1622410350" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">This is the conception of sensation-language that Wittgenstein offers us. He doesn't argue that it's true; in </span><span face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="color: #222222; font-size: 16px;">§244 it's merely offered up as a <i>possibility</i>. It's just that his version makes sense, whereas (he argues) the referentialist account is hopelessly mired in difficulties from beginning to end. It's up to us which one we choose. The important thing is to be honest with ourselves about what we're choosing - and why we're choosing it.</span></p></div><div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW252549575" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;"><p class="Paragraph SCXW252549575 BCX0" paraeid="{6811801e-e257-494a-b98e-6d198718f415}{168}" paraid="1609821791" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-kerning: none; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="TextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-contrast="none" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" lang="EN-GB" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;" xml:lang="EN-GB"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW252549575 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"></span></span><span class="EOP SCXW252549575 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":259}" face="Calibri, Calibri_EmbeddedFont, Calibri_MSFontService, sans-serif" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: #222222; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 20.5042px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></p></div>Philip Cartwrighthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11458571502536123264noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6701420428167031490.post-53819377189239940432018-12-10T20:02:00.000+00:002018-12-11T10:02:34.506+00:00§§136-142: Meaning, Understanding and Rules<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><u>Introduction</u></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Annoyingly,
this post turns back to reconsider <span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">§§136-142.
I've written about these sections before (see <a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.com/2013/10/from-logical-form-to-understanding.html" target="_blank">here</a> and <a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.com/2013/10/understanding-part-1-pictures-138-142.html" target="_blank">here</a>), but I
don't think those posts grasped their full significance. For it seems
to me that §§136-142 anticipate, or at least link up with,
virtually all the main themes and arguments found in the rest of the
book. </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">What
I want to do in this post, therefore, is show how they relate to what
comes after, with particular emphasis on the positive account of
<span style="font-style: normal;">rule-following</span>. So it's more
of a springboard into the later sections than a simple exegesis of
the material at hand. </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><u>§<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">§</span>136-137</u></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>Propositional
form and bipolarity</i></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">In
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">§136 Wittgenstein considers the
connection between propositions and truth. The underlying target here
is the Tractarian doctrine of bipolarity, which provides a
fundamental element of propositional form. It is intrinsic to the
concept of propositions that they can be true or false, and this
reflects something deep about the nature of language (which in turn
reflects something deep about the nature of the world). Importantly,
it doesn't just mean that all propositions are either true or false;
it further stipulates that that if a proposition is true then it must
be possible for it to have been false, and vice versa.</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">This
claim is bound up with the notion of sense. For a series of words to
be a proposition at all it must picture a logically possible state of
affairs. The pictured state is the sense of the proposition. But
there is no such thing as a </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>logically</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
impossible state of affairs; beyond the logically possible there is
only nonsense. So “The red door is two meters high” might well be
false but it pictures a logical possibility and, as such, has a
sense. By contrast, “Red is two meters high” doesn't picture a
logical impossibility because it doesn't picture anything at all;
it's nonsense. Likewise, “The door is the same as itself” doesn't
picture a logical necessity; again, it's nonsense. We might put it
like this: “Red is two meters high” </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>cannot</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
be true, and “The door is the same as itself” </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>cannot</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
be false – and that's why they lack sense. They fail to meet the
requirement of propositional bipolarity.</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>Bipolarity
and the rules of language</i></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Thinking
along these lines presents us with a distinctive conception of the
rules of language. On the surface things are governed by more or less
arbitrary </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>conventions</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">:
we say “The door is red” rather than “Is red the door”, but
this is just </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>grammar</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">.
If we chose, we could alter it in various ways without changing the
underlying meaning of our statements. But the surface conventions of
grammar are constrained by the deeper rules of </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>logical
syntax</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">. These rules govern
the basic requirements of meaning itself – what can and cannot be
said. As such, they set out the preconditions for any possible
language. And these rules are </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>not</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
down to us; they come, as it were, from without.</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">More
specifically, they mirror the a priori order of the world. The world
is composed of facts – objects combined in a certain way. It is
essential to objects that they can combine with each other, and the
ways in which they can and can't combine are given with the objects
themselves. Hence given the simple objects which form the foundation
of the world we already have </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>all</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
their possible combinations into more complex states of affairs. Of
these possibilities, some will obtain at any given moment while
others will not. But it is clear from this that whatever obtains
might not have, and whatever doesn't obtain might have. So states of
affairs are intrinsically bipolar, and this is reflected in language,
whose job it is to describe possible or actual states of affairs.
Language too is intrinsically bipolar.</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">This
amounts to a kind of hyper-realism regarding concepts. A proposition
has a sense because it pictures a possible state of affairs. It is
true if that state obtains and false if it doesn't. The names it
combines to form its picture pick out discrete types of objects. If a
word names a complex object (eg “horse”) then it picks out a
</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>possible</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
object, since that combination of simpler elements might or might not
exist. Even so, the possibility of the complex is given with the
world itself. In other words, our </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>concepts</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
are given with the world. We say that both Red Rum and Mr Ed are
horses (as opposed to, say, zebras or mules) and this simply reflects
how things stand. The world draws boundaries: it groups </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>these</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
things together as the same and separates </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>those</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
things as different. “Sameness” is a feature of the world. Hence
our concepts are correct or incorrect insofar as they match, or go
against, these distinctions. If my language doesn't distinguish
between horses and zebras then it is </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>mistaken</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
because it doesn't accurately reflect the structure of the world.</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>Bad
pictures: “fitting” </i></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">It
is this grand metaphysical vision that Wittgenstein is attacking in
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">§136, but he </span>doesn't confront
the Tractarian doctrines head-on. Why not? Because the <i>Tractatus</i>
is just an example of a broader way of thinking; it is the sort of
thing we tend to produce when we think philosophically about meaning,
knowledge, existence, etc. As such, the real problem lies not with
specific doctrines, but with a whole tendency of philosophical
thought. For Wittgenstein, the roots of confusion to lie further back
in our ordinary forms of expression. One way or another these can
produce a misleading impression, so that when we come to philosophise
about something we <i>start out</i> facing the wrong way and go on
from there. In <span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">§1, for example,
Augustine's unduly narrow account of learning to talk gives us “a
particular picture of the essence of human language”, namely that
“the words in our language name objects – sentences are
combinations of such names” (ibid). Such a thought fixes the
framework of our enquiry and makes it a natural step to conclude that
“Every word has a meaning. The meaning is correlated with the word.
It is the object for which the word stands” (ibid). And we've just
seen above an example of what </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>that</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
idea can lead to.</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Wittgenstein
calls these impressions “pictures” – meaning something like
“conceptions” or a general way of looking at things (they are not
to be confused with the mental images he discusses in relation to
meaning and understanding). And the picture he takes exception to in
the case of propositional form centres around the notion of </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>fitting</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">.
He sets this out in §136b: “what fits the concept 'true', or what
the concept 'true' fits, is a proposition. [...] What </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>engages</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
with the concept of truth (as with a cog-wheel) is a proposition”.
Wittgenstein calls this a “bad picture” (§136c), but what's
wrong with it? Well, it's not simply that it's </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>incorrect</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">;
there is something undeniably apt about this way of putting things –
and that's what makes the picture so hard to get away from. But as a
straightforward account of the relation between propositions and the
concepts “true” and “false” it is deeply misleading.
Specifically, it tempts us to view that relation as a kind of
pre-ordained structure written into the nature of the concepts
themselves. And this “pre-ordained structure” is the logical form
of the proposition.</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">What
we are losing sight of here is that the statement “propositions fit
the concepts of truth and falsehood” gives a </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>figurative</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
account of their relation. Propositions don't </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>literally</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">fit</span></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
with anything, since they are not physical objects. Taken
figuratively, the statement is harmless enough – indeed, it could
be helpful in impressing upon someone the depth of connection
involved (and therein lies its aptness). But, dazzled by the
relentless consistency with which propositions can be designated as
“true” or “false”, we can easily move from saying it's </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>as
if</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> these concepts fitted to
saying that they </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>do</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
fit – only “in a </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>strange</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
way” (cf §195). And this seemingly innocuous shift of emphasis
sows the seeds of a full-blown metaphysical ontology, for it draws us
into considering propositions as a ghostly kind of pseudo-object.
They are “akin to” physical objects, with a range of analogous
attributes (including the attribute of fitting), yet they are </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>not</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>physical</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">.
And it follows from this that they must operate within a realm which
is “akin to” the physical realm only, once again, not physical.</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Here
we can either take the Platonist line and construe this realm as a
kind of “alternative dimension” – a non-spatial space (!) in
which the pseudo-objects (or “forms”) do their thing – or else
we can see it in more Cartesian terms as the </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>inner</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
realm of the mind where propositions exist as thoughts. (In the
</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>Tractatus</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">,
Wittgenstein has it both ways: propositions are thoughts in the mind,
but they reflect possible states of affairs, which exist in logical
space.)</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>Fitting
and rules</i></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">So
Wittgenstein's objection in §136 to the notion of “fitting” can
be seen as the first move against the philosophical conception of
“the inner” (which is, of course, itself a misleading picture).
This will reach its culmination in the private language argument, but
throughout his strategy is the same: to show how the bewitching
metaphysical vision is a misconceived reaction to the grammar of our
language (cf </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>Zettel</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">,
§55). Hence he points out that casting the relation between
“proposition” and “true” in terms of “fitting” is like
saying that “check” </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>fits</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
the king in chess (the king can </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>always</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
be checked, and </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>only</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
the king can be checked). But of course no-one is going to say that
being checked is a mysterious </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">attribute</span></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
of the king; rather, it is simply a matter of the </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">rules</span></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
of the game. And in the same way, the rules of grammar always allow
us to label a proposition “true” or “false”, and forbid us
from doing so in the case of, say, questions or exclamations. As
such, the connection between propositions and truth-functionality is
</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>definitional</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">:
it is part of the definition of “proposition” that they can be
called “true” or “false”. So the metaphysical vision, spurred
on by a bad picture, sublimates a grammatical rule and turns it into
a law – not a physical or scientific law, but a </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>logical</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
one. In particular, it mistakes the timeless, imperative form of the
rule (“You must always do this”) for an expression of a timeless,
imperative </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>truth</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
written into the very possibility of existence.</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>Grammar
vs logical syntax</i></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Of
course, such an assessment only works if you concede that grammar is
not </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>itself</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
a reflection of the form of the world. Otherwise you will simply say
that the reason grammar treats propositions as it does is </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>because
of</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> the formal attributes
they possess. This brings us back to the distinction suggested above
between grammar (a matter of convention) and logical syntax (a
reflection of a priori necessity). For we might argue that there's
something crass about the comparison between chess and language in
§136. The rules of chess are obviously mere </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">conventions</span></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">,
whereas the rules of language have </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">depth</span></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">.
Is it merely a matter of convention that “the red door is two
meters high” makes sense but “red is two meters high” does not?
Could we change that on a whim? The answer is surely no.</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">There
are at least four areas where rules seem to run deeper than
conventions ever could: logic, language, mathematics and ethics. Here
our rules seem to come to us from without, as if they were discovered
rather than invented. Wittgenstein's task in the <i>Investigations</i>
is to expose the incoherence of this picture, while at the same time
doing justice to the important truth which it reflects – albeit in
a confused, distorted manner. The crucial step in this regard is to
uncouple meaning from objects. The meaning of a word is <i>not</i>
the object it signifies (§40), but its use in the language (§43).
Hence the rules of language (its grammar) are not tied to the
combinational possibilities of objects but rather express a way of
<span style="font-style: normal;">living</span>. They do not reflect
the a priori form of the world (for there is no such thing); insofar
as they reflect anything it is our contingent <i>form of life</i>.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><u>§138</u></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>Understanding
and fitting</i></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">The
interlocutor now shifts the focus from “fitting” in relation to
propositions to a word's meaning fitting the sense of a sentence, or
fitting the meaning of another word. This is an indirect attempt to
defend the notion of propositional form, since if we allow that
word-meanings fit each other (like jigsaw pieces) then, as before, we
are presenting them as pseudo-objects – and in that case, the
sentence we get by slotting them together will obviously be a more
complex pseudo-object.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Note
how the interlocutor's objection equivocates between two slightly
different positions. On the one hand we have the notion of a word's
meaning fitting the <i>sense</i> of a sentence, but on the other hand
we have the notion of word-meanings fitting <i>each other</i>. This
seems to cast meaning itself as an <i>inner</i> object which goes
proxy for its physical counterpart. But it's the physical counterpart
that's supposed to be the meaning! And if meaning is an <i>inner</i>
object, what work is left over for the “outer” object to perform?
For if I have the picture then I <span style="font-style: normal;">already
have</span> the meaning! But in that case, what's the difference
between the correct and incorrect use of words? How can I tell the
right picture from a wrong one? How can there so much as <i>be</i> a
“wrong” picture?</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Here
we see how easily a hyper-realist account of meaning can slide into
something like Idealism once we focus on the actual process of
meaning something by a word. And the nub of the problem seems to
reside in our account of the workings of the <i>mind</i>. This part
of the puzzle is almost entirely ignored in the <i>Tractatus</i>, but
it lurks behind the scenes, and is about to be dragged centre stage.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Leaving
aside the Idealist implications, however, isn't this talk of meanings
“fitting” each other open to exactly the same objection as
before? Can't we write it off as another bad picture which mistakes
grammatical rules for a description of metaphysical necessity?
Wittgenstein more or less makes the same point: “if the meaning is
the <i>use</i> we make of the word, it makes no sense to speak of
such fitting”. Now, however, the interlocutor plays his ace:</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.25cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">But
we <i>understand</i> the meaning of a word when we hear or say it; we
grasp the meaning at a stroke, and what we grasp in this way is
surely something different from the 'use' which is extended in time!
(<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">§138)</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div align="LEFT" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">The
basic point here is relatively straightforward and appealing: when I
understand a word – say, in a conversation – I grasp its meaning
in an instant. The meaning is here with me now, whereas the use is
out there in the world, scattered across diverse times and places.
The word slots into its place like a jigsaw piece and that's that; I
don't have to work out the meaning by recalling various examples of
its use. So what I grasp – the meaning – isn't a use.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Note
how our focus has now shifted from the logic of language to the
psychological concept of understanding. As promised, theory of mind
is taking centre-stage, and soon a host of interrelated phenomena
will make their appearance: intending, believing, thinking,
remembering, willing, etc. What this amounts to is a shift from
considering meaning as a noun (“the meaning of a word is the object
for which it stands”) to considering it as a verb. Meaning is
something we <i>do</i>. This active quality is perhaps more obvious
in the case of understanding; for to say “the understanding of a
word is the object for which it stands” hardly makes sense, unless
it's an odd way of saying something like “by a given word I
understand the object it signifies”. And we might make the same
point with regard to meaning; we <i>can</i> present it as a noun, but
that's just another way of saying “by a given word I mean the
object it signifies”. (This alone puts considerable strain on the
claim that meanings are objects. For it is not like the case of
“hammer” used as both a noun and a verb. I can have a hammer
without ever hammering anything.)</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>A
mythology of meaning and understanding</i></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Very
well, but what does this “doing” amount to? The obvious candidate
is a mental act of some kind. That much is already implied in the
interlocutor's remark when he speaks of understanding as <i>grasping</i>
a word's meaning. (Notice, however, that “grasping” in this
context is somewhat metaphorical. It is modelled on the physical act
of taking hold of something. This ought to arouse our suspicions.)
Likewise, it is at least tempting to suppose that meaning involves a
similar mental act. This seems to be Wittgenstein's position in the
<i>Tractatus</i>. For although he brushes aside questions about the
mind as none of his business, he does offer up one hugely revealing
comment:</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.25cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">We
use the perceptible sign of a proposition (spoken or written, etc) as
a projection of a possible situation.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.25cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">The
method of projection is to think out the sense of the proposition.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div align="RIGHT" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.25cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">TLP 3.11</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Here
a proposition is connected to a possible situation by an act of
thought; the proposition's sense is, as it were, calculated (or
constructed) out of its constituent components. Hence meaning and
understanding are <i>inner processes</i>. The exact nature of these
processes is purportedly the business of psychology, not logic –
and yet we are already committed to a general conception of meaning
as a mental event (cf <span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">§</span>308).
This seemingly innocuous step brings in its wake a large array of
interrelated themes and ideas:</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<ul>
<li><div style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Understanding
– grasping a word's meaning – is an inner-process which stands
behind speaking and hearing.</span></div>
</li>
<li><div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">It
is this inner-process that marks the difference between language as
a meaningful activity and mere behaviour – the manipulation of
dead signs.</span></div>
</li>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<li><div style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Hence
the inner-process adds <i>value</i> to our words. For only
meaningful language can be <i>correct or incorrect</i>; the
manipulation of dead signs, on the other hand, is a “blind”
process. It simply does what it does.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
</li>
<li><div style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">The
inner-process is one that I have direct access to. I <i>experience</i>
it. So when I understand I <i>know</i> that I understand without
further ado.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
</li>
<li><div style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">I
don't have direct access to the understanding of others. Hence there
is a radical asymmetry between first-person and third-person cases.
In a third-person case I <i>deduce</i> that they understand based on
their correct use of the word. Their performance is <i>evidence</i>
of understanding.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
</li>
<li><div style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">If
I understand a word's meaning I use it correctly. I use it correctly
<i>because</i> I understand. So the inner-process of understanding
<i>produces</i> correct usage, like the output of a machine.</span></div>
</li>
<li><div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">The
process, however, is clearly not a <i>causal</i> one, for a causal
process can only produce the manipulation of dead signs – and the
process of understanding is the <i>difference between</i> dead signs
and meaningful language.</span></div>
</li>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<li><div style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">The
process is <i>logical</i>, not causal. It represents the recognition
of the <i>possible</i> legitimate combinations of a word with other
words.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
</li>
<li><div style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">So
the process contains within it all the possible applications of a
word. New ones are not discovered later, as a kind of surprise –
as if, having said “the cat is on the mat”, I was then surprised
to find that I could also say “the cat is on the chair”. If I
don't know <i>in advance</i> that “cat” can be used in both
those sentences (and countless others) then I don't understand the
word.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
</li>
<li><div style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">The
process therefore acts as the rule for the use of a word – not in
the sense of a “convention”, but as a <i>deep</i> rule: a
recognition of underlying <i>logical form</i>.</span></div>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">And now
we're back where we started. </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">We
can see from this how the interlocutor's appeal to understanding and
meaning as inner processes links directly to the defence of logical
form, and as such represents a challenge to the idea that meaning is
use. And it should also be clear that these concepts are further
interwoven with rule-following. They go hand in hand. So clarifying
the notion of meaning and understanding necessitates the
clarification of rule-following as well (this task begins at <span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">§143,
and not at §185, as is sometimes suggested). In some ways this is
new territory – that is, it doesn't relate to explicit theories in
the </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>Tractatus</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">.
But it is still part of the same enquiry in that it investigates a
tempting conceptual picture which the </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>Tractatus</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
simply takes for granted. Moreover, as already noted, the </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>Tractatus</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
is being used as a typical example of philosophical thought more
generally. The idea that meaning and understanding are affected via
some kind of inner process (usually involving mental representations)
is a common assumption in </span>both Rationalism and Empiricism.
It's there in Descartes, Locke and Hume, Russell and Frege – and
it's also there in Kant, Hegel and the post-Hegelians (at least up
until Sartre). In current philosophy it is a central tenet of
cognitive science. Wittgenstein is taking on a sacred cow.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>Understanding
and correctness</i></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">The
boxed comment at the end of <span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">§138
provides one step towards undermining this bad picture</span>. Must I
always know whether I understand a word? Clearly the answer is no: it
frequently happens that we suppose a word means one thing, whereas it
actually means another. This in itself contradicts one element of the
mythology: the suggestion that if I understand something then I
cannot help but know it – I cannot be wrong about it. But of course
I <i>can</i> be wrong about it, and this raises the issue of
<i>correctness</i>. Up till now it's been assumed that the business
of fitting more or less took care of itself – after all, a jigsaw
piece can <i>only</i> fit with certain others. But if that's how it
works, then how could we ever be <i>wrong</i> about the meaning of a
word? It would be like trying to put a square peg in a round hole and
somehow supposing it really did fit. Using words wrongly would be
more like insanity than a simple mistake.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">But
the implications run deeper, for now we're forced to ask what <i>shows</i>
whether or not I genuinely understand a word. And the answer seems to
be: how I <i>use</i> it. I can be as sure as you like that I do
understand, but if I don't use the word correctly then, for all that,
I don't understand it (cf <span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">§202: “to
</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>think</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
one is following a rule is not to follow a rule”)</span>. Therefore
the criterion of understanding that applies to <i>me</i> in a
first-person case is the <i>same</i> one that I apply to <i>you</i>
in a third-person case. So, at the very least, the privileged status
of the first-person case seems less straightforward than we supposed.
(Note that we're not denying there's a <i>difference</i> between the
two cases; but it doesn't seem to be the difference between <i>knowing</i>
and <i>guessing</i>.)</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><u>§139</u></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>Pictures</i></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">§139
continues the interlocutor's objection to meaning as use: when I hear
a word that I understand, its use doesn't come before my mind yet I
know what it means. Wittgenstein grants this but reiterates the point
that meaning is determined by use (note, however, that he </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>doesn't</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
grant that understanding is essentially a matter of something coming
before the mind). How can meaning be both something that comes before
our mind when we understand and the way a word is used? And how might
these two aspects come into conflict? If “understanding” equates
to grasping an inner Something (ie, meaning) which </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>generates</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
use, then once we have the meaning we have the use – so how can
there be conflict between the two?</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">To
examine the question more closely, Wittgenstein suggests a <i>picture</i>
as an example of this “inner Something”. (Obviously this is a nod
towards the Tractarian picture theory of language but, as we've
already noted, its implications run far wider.) So if I have a
picture of a cube in my mind, how can this fail to fit with the use
of a word? The interlocutor's account is appealingly straightforward:
if I use the word to signify (eg) a triangular prism (by pointing to
the prism and saying “cube”) that use doesn't fit the picture,
because the picture is of a cube, not a triangular prism. In this way
the picture establishes correct use by acting as a sample – and
therefore as a <i>rule</i> for the use of the word.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Wittgenstein,
however, objects with a rather startling question: “But doesn't it
fit?” He then elaborates: “I have purposely so chosen the example
that it is quite easy to imagine a <i>method of projection</i>
according to which the picture does fit after all” (“method of
projection” here is a direct reference to TLP 3.11).</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">This
is a <i>crucial</i> moment in the <i>Investigations</i>, so it's
worth spelling things out. First, how might the picture and the use
fit? Perhaps not too easily if the picture is like this:</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqg2qgZ2vS2TfF9E4gMxArJ14jsEH1097z0GHmFIjqtZqGDHi2-gKgnMiSKTGyP-ToK6wgslMvAvsJZA7mKW2yruq0esMusJ9MpTmbZsrQZCvpdhyphenhyphenhOlujvnBUv7A4VkTlMJrjmBoIGck/s1600/Cube+a.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="277" data-original-width="346" height="256" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqg2qgZ2vS2TfF9E4gMxArJ14jsEH1097z0GHmFIjqtZqGDHi2-gKgnMiSKTGyP-ToK6wgslMvAvsJZA7mKW2yruq0esMusJ9MpTmbZsrQZCvpdhyphenhyphenhOlujvnBUv7A4VkTlMJrjmBoIGck/s320/Cube+a.JPG" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>picture
a</i></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">But
how about this:</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhdlY4zTQHf66Rir-Fwcq0vqMoZv8l7popXi0rbIvbbFRLQRmPUorgbrq2omgwCvRuM533Ef4C9QADsE3ALu7xy0cDwtHwMcjxGdaTHrE71RTHOf7rMIoySXinnY-mWBawIPCEw7EQEE0/s1600/Cube+b.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="247" data-original-width="402" height="196" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhdlY4zTQHf66Rir-Fwcq0vqMoZv8l7popXi0rbIvbbFRLQRmPUorgbrq2omgwCvRuM533Ef4C9QADsE3ALu7xy0cDwtHwMcjxGdaTHrE71RTHOf7rMIoySXinnY-mWBawIPCEw7EQEE0/s320/Cube+b.JPG" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>picture
b</i></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">This
too is a picture of a cube seen from a certain angle – and it
matches up with (can be projected onto) a triangular prism seen from
a certain angle. On this <i>interpretation</i> the picture fits the
use.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">If
that seems like a bit of a cheat it's only because we've been taught
a <i>typical</i> way of picturing cubes (drawing them, etc) and
applying such pictures in various situations. In other words, we've
been taught to <i>use</i> a certain configuration of lines (as in
picture (a)) to represent cuboid objects. So actually the “cheating”
runs the other way. The inner picture is supposed to govern the use
of a word by “<span style="font-style: normal;">exhibiting”</span><i>
</i>a standard of correctness – as if the standard “radiated out”
from it. That seemed to be the case with picture (a), but only
because we <i>already have</i> an established standard (a typical
use) for such pictures: the one we learnt as children. Hence “The
picture of the cube did indeed suggest a certain use to us, but it
was also possible for me to use it differently” (<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">§</span>139).</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>Pictures
and “the same”</i></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Here
we should note how it's easy to think that pictures, unlike words,
are <i>inherently</i> representational. The word “cube” is
obviously nothing like an actual cube, whereas a picture (we suppose)
<i>unmistakably</i> represents cuboid objects because they're <i>the
same</i>. That is, their sameness is a <i>fact</i> – it's “out
there in the world”, rather than a convention established through
use (we've already noted this suggestion with regard to conceptual
realism). And this is why we're tempted to latch words onto pictures
as a theory of meaning; it seems to create an unbreakable bond
between the word and what it signifies. But Wittgenstein's objection
draws attention to the fact that “same” and “different” are
<i>reactions</i> or <i>judgements</i>, not inherent qualities of
objects. As such, they are an expression of our <i>form of life</i>
(see also the boxed comments at the end of <span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">§139).
I don't think it's too much of an exaggeration to say that this point
about sameness lies at the very heart of the </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>Philosophical
Investigations</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">. In various
guises it crops up over and over again – as we shall see.</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Let's
return to the “cube” example. I said that picture (a) wouldn't
<i>easily</i> fit with the triangular prism, but that doesn't mean it
can't be done. Suppose, for example, I'm presented with a sphere and
a triangular prism. I have picture (a) in my mind and I point to the
prism and say “cube”, because if you cut a cube in half you can
make two triangular prisms (which can't be done with a sphere). So,
again, on this interpretation the picture matches the use. But! By
the same token, it's not too hard to produce an interpretation
according to which picture (a) would fit with pointing at the <i>sphere</i>,
not the prism (think of their respective planes of symmetry). And you
can take this process as far as you want; according to <i>some</i>
interpretation anything can be made to fit with anything else.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">What
it comes down to is this. The picture is supposed to act as a <span style="font-style: normal;">sample,
b</span>ut without a pre-existing method of application (a use) to
establish what the picture is a sample <i>of</i>, we're just plucking
connections out of thin air. Anything, or nothing, will be correct –
and “that only means that here we can't talk about 'correct'”
(<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">§258). At a foundational level, it
is not the sample which establishes use, but the use which
establishes the sample </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>as a
sample</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">.</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">This
is a crucial insight, though in fact we've met it before. It flows
directly from the observation in §28 that “an ostensive definition
can be variously interpreted in </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>any</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
case” – for an ostensive definition gives a rule for the use of a
word by providing a sample (“This </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">→</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
</span><span style="color: #ff3333;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">█</span></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
is 'red'”)</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">. It then
re-emerges in §§86-87 where because a rule can be variously
interpreted in any case it seems like we need an infinite chain of
them, each one explaining its predecessor. And we meet it again in
the “add 2” scenario in §§185-186. There the pupil reacts to
the rule “add two” in a way the teacher doesn't intend. From the
interlocutor's point of view, the intention (or meaning) is akin to a
sample (or rule) in the teacher's mind, and the problem arises
because the pupil has grasped an inner sample that doesn't </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>fit</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">.
But again Wittgenstein responds by asking (in effect) “who </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>says</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
they don't fit?” He goes on in §198 to draw a conclusion analogous
to the one mentioned above: “Interpretations by themselves do not
determine meaning”. And then, in §201: “what we thereby show is
that there is a way of grasping a rule which is </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>not</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
an interpretation, but which, from case to case of application, is
exhibited in what we call 'following the rule' and 'going against
it'”.</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">What,
in general terms, is the difficulty we're up against? I think it can
be put like this. It is tempting to suppose that both meaning and
understanding are essentially a matter of calculating or interpreting
or figuring out. So when I say a word I mentally stamp an
interpretation on it; I calculate that this is the right word in this
context. And when I hear a word I figure out or calculate its meaning
through a complementary act of interpretation. But calculations and
interpretations stand in need of </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>justification</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">.
Suppose someone says “My mastiff has fleas”; I don't know the
word “mastiff” but I guess from the context that it's a dog of
some kind. I will now need to confirm my guess – by looking up the
word in a dictionary, for example. But of course if I also have to
interpret the dictionary definition then I'm no further forward; I
now need to confirm my interpretation of the definition. If meaning
is to be established then interpretation has to end in something
which is not itself an interpretation. For the interlocutor, this can
only be a sign (eg, a picture) which somehow contains its own
definition (or method of application). This we might call the
“magical sign” theory of meaning. And Wittgenstein's protest
throughout is that there's no such thing; a sign is a sign is a sign.
So what </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>does</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
bring interpretation to an end? We shall get to that in the
discussion of §142, but actually there is a clue in the boxed
remarks at the end of §139.</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>Natural
reactions</i></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Of
these, (b) is the most directly relevant to the section, as it gives
another example of a picture we're inclined to use one way but which
might be used differently. Note how this puts the emphasis on our
</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>inclinations</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
rather than anything inherent in the picture. </span>We <i>react</i>
to it in one way; a Martian might react in another. And, of course,
we have been <i>taught</i> to react in this way – so it's a case of
“second-nature”. But second-nature is built upon first-nature; it
is a <i>refinement</i>.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Comment
(a) is a more general remark about “fitting”, and makes a telling
connection with the notion of </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>aptness</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">.
A word can fit a sentence in the sense of being apt, just as we might
consider a glass of cognac a </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>fitting</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
end to a sumptuous meal (but not to, say, beans on toast). Here it is
obvious that we don't mean “fitting” in a literal or
quasi-physical sense – like a plug fitting into a socket. As in
(b), it is rather a matter of our natural reactions.</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><u>§140</u></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>Logical
compulsion</i></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">So
in a normal case we tend to take a picture in a particular way
without possible alternatives occurring to us. This can create the
illusion that a picture </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>forces</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
a use upon us. In §140 Wittgenstein calls this the illusion of
“logical compulsion”, but what does he mean by that term? Well,
suppose we think along the following lines. A picture can represent
an object, but the </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>essence</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
of this relationship does not really lie in their </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>looking</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
the same. After all, we wouldn't mistake a drawing of a face (</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">☺)
for an actual face. Rather, what they share is a </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>configuration
of elements</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">. The basic
components of the picture-face stand to each other in the same
relation as the basic components of a human face. That is, they share
the same </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>logical form</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">.
So long as they both have this form in common, a sign can depict an
object even though it looks nothing like it – hence ink on paper,
for example, can depict snow falling on a mountain. The syntax of the
sentence mirrors the form of the thought it expresses, and the form
of the thought, in turn, mirrors the form of the state of affairs it
depicts. And, importantly, what links sign and object on this account
is not a </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>similarity</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
or </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>resemblance</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">;
they </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>literally</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
have the </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>same</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
form. That's why the connection between them </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>cannot</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
be missed – it would be tantamount to supposing that an object
wasn't identical with itself.</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Something
along these lines is as close as I can get to making sense of logical
compulsion. And really it just seems to be an imposing statement of
ideas we've already discussed: the picture is inherently the same as
the object it signifies; it carries within it its method of
application. In other words, it is a magical sign. But as we've seen,
this sublime account is exploded by the simple observation that the
same picture might represent different objects, and different
pictures might represent the same object. The notion of inherent
sameness is an illusion.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>Psychological
compulsion</i></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">But
what's left to us if we reject this account? Well, we've said that
the illusion of logical compulsion arises because it often only
occurs to us to take a picture in one particular sense. Aren't we
therefore dealing with a </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>psychological</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
process such as automatic association? Certainly it's tempting to
cash things out in this way: I associate a word with a picture and a
picture with an object, and that's why only one application of the
picture tends to occur to me. So “we're at most under a
psychological, not a logical, compulsion” (§140). Having raised
this possibility, Wittgenstein doesn't directly endorse or reject it.
Instead, he cryptically remarks that “now, indeed, it looks as if
we knew of two kinds of case”. This at least seems to favour
psychological compulsion, since the implication is that logical
compulsion doesn't even amount to a genuine case; it's an illusion.</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">But
we should be wary here. Just because psychological compulsion is an
established phenomenon in our lives doesn't mean it must be the
answer to our problem. Furthermore,</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">there
are strong reasons for rejecting it as the foundation of meaning. For
a start, the move from logical to psychological compulsion is roughly
equivalent to the move from Rationalism to Empiricism – and that in
itself should make us pause, since Wittgenstein wants to reject both
of those positions. More explicitly, psychological compulsion </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">is
a </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>causal</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
phenomenon, covering features such as conditioned behaviour, phobias,
habitual reactions, etc. As such, it cannot help us make sense of
concepts such as “meaning”, “understanding”, “knowing”
and “rule-following”. For these are intrinsically bound up with
the notion of </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>correctness</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">,
and correctness plays </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">no
part</span></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> in causal accounts.
When magnesium reacts with water, it isn't acting correctly (or
incorrectly). It's simply doing what it does. Likewise, if a certain
word always gives rise to a particular mental image (perhaps through
conditioning) then so far there is nothing correct or incorrect about
what happens. For the image to be the </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">correct</span></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
response to the word you need a pre-established </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">standard</span></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
against which to judge what happens. In other words, you need a </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>use</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">.</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Wittgenstein
wants to reject the notion of logical compulsion but </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>retain</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
the distinction between a logical account of language and a causal
one (cf §220). We can present this as a distinction between reasons
and causes. For when we use a picture as a sample (ie, as a rule) the
sample is the </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>reason</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
for what we do, not its cause. It is what we point to when justifying
our actions as </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>correct </i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">(cf
§§217, 230)</span></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">. But
casting this legitimate distinction in terms of logical compulsion
gives us a “bad picture”, just like the notion of of “fitting”
with regard to propositions and words. And the picture is bad for
pretty much the same reason: it invokes an inner realm modelled on an
analogy with physical objects and their interaction. So the notion of
“fitting” casts propositions and words as pseudo-objects, and
“logical compulsion” presents us with a pseudo-process –
something that's analogous to a physical process and yet (somehow) is
not simply a matter of causation. The problem with logical
compulsion, therefore, is that it's </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>too
close</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> to its Empiricist
counterpart – and that hardly suggests that Empiricism provides a
better alternative.</span></span></div>
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</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">At
the same time, however, Wittgenstein is perfectly willing to admit
that everything hinges upon our natural reactions. Indeed, he insists
upon it (see §143, §185, §198 and §242). Doesn't this amount to
an endorsement of psychological compulsion? No. It recognises that in
the context of a human life an act can be unreflective – or even
automatic – without therefore being mindless. We tend to assume
that if our behaviour is not the result of explicit deliberation
(figuring things out, interpretation) then it must be rigidly causal
or machine-like. But this simply overlooks the fact that, when it
comes to living beings (especially human beings), our concept of
action is not so starkly dualistic. We shall return to this point
when we discuss §142.</span></div>
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</div>
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<br /></div>
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</div>
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<br /></div>
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</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><u>§141</u></span></div>
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</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>Picturing
the method of application</i></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">We've
seen that a picture cannot by itself provide a foundation for meaning
since it lacks a method of application. But couldn't such a method
come before our minds along with the picture? If we mean by this that
we get the picture plus another picture showing how to apply it, then
the answer is no. For we would then need to know how to apply this
second picture. Would that require a </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>third</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
picture? And now, of course, we've reached a regress of
interpretation.</span></span></div>
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</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">But
can't an application come before my mind? Faced with this question,
Wittgenstein makes a characteristic move: he suggests we clarify the
</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>use</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
of the phrase “the application came before my mind”. The point
here is that a flat denial seems to deny that people ever suddenly
understand something or grasp in an instant how they should continue.
That would be a startling discovery. Yet affirming the phrase seems
to entail something equally amazing: that an infinite number of
pictures flash into our minds, or else there's a </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">magical
picture</span></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> – a picture
that tells us what to do like a voice from the Beyond. In this way,
the phrase “the application came before my mind” presents us with
another misleading picture; it easily prompts us into conjuring up
occult processes that seem both impossible and inescapable. The way
out of this quagmire is to set the picture in motion, because that's
when we see what it actually amounts to – the role it plays in our
lives. As Wittgenstein comments in §423: “The picture is there.
And I am not disputing its validity in particular cases. – Only let
me now understand its application”. Clarifying the function of this
picture will be a central concern of the </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>Investigations</i></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
from §143 onwards. In §141, however, we're given a scenario and
invited to work through its implications for ourselves. So let's do
that.</span></span></div>
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</div>
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<br /></div>
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</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>Grasping
in an instant</i></span></div>
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</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Suppose
I have been teaching a pupil to produce a number series using two
formulas: (a) “n+2”, and (b) “nx2”. Now I test the pupil by
writing “2, 4, 6” and asking her to continue the series using the
correct formula. (This scenario is close to the examples considered
in §151 and §185.) Let's consider some of the various things that
might happen.</span></div>
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</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">i)
She thinks for a few seconds and then, with a sense of relief or
sudden confidence, the formula “n+2” occurs to her (either as a
picture or spoken words). She cries “It's n+2!”, and writes “8,
10, 12”.</span></div>
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</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">ii)
She suddenly realises that the numbers in the sequence increase by
two each time. She sees that the next number must be 8 and now the
formula “n+2” occurs to her. She cries “It's n+2!” and writes
“8, 10, 12”.</span></div>
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</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">iii)
She spots the pattern of increase, as in (ii), and writes “8, 10,
12” but the formula itself doesn't occur to her. We ask which
formula she has demonstrated. Imagine: (a) she says “n+2” without
hesitation; (b) she guesses “n+2”; (c) she says “nx2” without
hesitation; and (d) she can't give an answer.</span></div>
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</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">In
which of these examples does the application came before the pupil's
mind? The answer seems to depend on what exactly we're testing her
for – that is, it depends on the <i>circumstances</i> of the case
just as much as whatever images pass through her mind. If we merely
want to see if she can continue the series then we might well allow
all three cases – including (iiic). If we want to see if she can
continue a series and match it up with a formula then (ii) and (iiia)
are fine, but not (iiib-iiid). But if we want to see if she can
derive a formula from an example and then use that formula to
continue the series we might object to both (ii) and (iii) since in
those cases she at most <i>associated</i> the formula with the
continuation. In other cases we might object to (i) on the grounds
that it was merely the formula, and not its application, that came
before her mind. Yet in (i) the occurrence of the formula was clearly
the key to her subsequent correct application. Isn't that enough?
Again, the answer will depend on the circumstances of the case.</span></div>
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</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">The
point here is that the phrase “the application came before her
mind” does not simply refer to a particular play of mental images.
In many cases it's just another way of saying “she got the answer”,
while in others her specific train of thought is more important. But
throughout its meaning is conceptually (grammatically) bound up with
what happens both before and after any mental images occur. It is
when we take the phrase as a straightforward <i>description</i> that
it becomes misleading, because then it suggests that “understanding”
is a matter of mental objects parading themselves in the private
theatre of the mind. Some further examples might make this clearer.</span></div>
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</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">iv)
The pupil pictures “n+2” as in (i), but then gets stuck when she
tries to write the answer. Here the application <i>hasn't</i> come
before her mind, even though her mental image matches a case in which
it did. Indeed, we might even suppose she pictures “n+2” <i>and</i>
“8, 10, 12” but still can't see the connection between those
images and what she's supposed to write. Here again in some
circumstances we would say the application hadn't come before her
mind – but in others we might say it had. The mental picture is not
in itself <span style="font-style: normal;">sufficient</span> to
warrant the use of the phrase. We might also say that <i>thinking</i>
you understand is not the same as understanding (cf §202 for the
connection between this, rule-following and private language).</span></div>
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</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">v)
Now let's imagine we've written the two formulas on cards, so the
pupil has to choose the right card and then continue the series (this
draws on the suggestion in §141b that a physical picture will do
just as well as a mental one). She glances between the numbers and
the cards for a few seconds and then says “that one!”, pointing
at “n+2”. Then she continues correctly. Again, I think we'd say
that the application had come before her mind – but are we really
to suppose that this was a matter of her inwardly picturing the
formula she was looking at? (Can you do that? Stare at something and
picture it to yourself while staring at it.) So not only is a mental
picture not sufficient; it doesn't seem to be necessary either.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">But
is there <i>no</i> connection between what goes on in her mind and
giving the right answer? Is it just a matter of writing “8, 10, 12”
when presented with “2, 4, 6”? Of course not. We wouldn't say the
application had come before her mind if she'd cheated or guessed. We
want the pupil to write “8, 10, 12” <i>because</i> “n+2”
occurred to her – that is, we want her to think of the correct rule
and then <i>follow</i> it, not just write something that's in
accordance with it. But “thinking of the right rule” does not
simply mean having this or that mental image. And that's because
following the rule (as opposed to merely acting in accordance with
it) is a <i>criterion</i> of having thought of the <span style="font-style: normal;">rule</span>
(as opposed to merely having pictured it). To see this, consider the
following example.</span></div>
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</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">vi)
The pupil has the mental image “n+2” and continues “8, 10, 12”.
But when we question her afterwards she cannot explain <i>why</i>
“n+2” gives that continuation. It was just that the mental image
produced in her the <i>urge</i> to go on as she did. Here we would
not say that the application came before her mind, even though she
pictured “n+2” and continued in accordance with the rule. And the
reason is that she didn't <i>follow</i> the rule. Does this mean that
in order to follow the rule she must use it to <i>calculate</i> her
result? Not necessarily:</span></div>
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</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">vii)
Suppose the pupil can add fluently. So now when we instruct her to
continue the series “2, 4, 6” she writes “8, 10, 12” without
having to think about it (and this, by the way, is an example of an
action which is automatic yet not mindless). But when we ask her to
explain her answer she does so in the normal way: “each number is
two higher than the previous one, so I went on adding two – six
plus two is eight, and so on”. Did the application come before her
mind? No – that is, the correct solution didn't suddenly occur to
her, because she was never in any doubt. Did she calculate her result
using the rule? No; she just wrote “8, 10, 12” as you or I would
do. But did she <i>follow</i> the rule? Yes: the rule was her
justification for her answer; it was her <i>reason</i> for continuing
as she did. She was, we might say, <i>committed</i> to the rule –
and in that sense the rule compelled her. But here “compulsion”
is more like acting out of duty than being carried along by a
mysterious force.</span></div>
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</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>The
clash between picture and application</i></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Let's
recap. In §139 we noted that a picture, of itself, does not fit or
fail to fit a use. That is, any given picture can be brought into
line with, or made to clash with, any given use via a suitable rule
for its application (a method of projection). It <i>seemed</i> like a
picture forced an application on us, but that was just because we
overlooked the various ways in which it might be used. Then, prompted
by Wittgenstein's invitation in §141, we considered in what sense a
method of application might come before our minds. This too turned
out not to be a simple matter of visualising something (eg, a rule) –
indeed, the visualisation need not be mental at all. Rather, it is
conceptually bound up with the circumstances within which the rule
occurs to us.</span></div>
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</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">In
§141c, Wittgenstein swerves back to the question of the way in which
a picture might clash with an application. “Well, they can clash in
so far as the picture makes us expect a different use; because people
in general apply <i>this</i> picture like <i>this</i>”. So a
picture can only clash with (or fit) a use if there's an established
practice of applying it. This foreshadows Wittgenstein's likening of
rules to customs in §§198-199, and his claim that there could not
be only one rule followed on only one occasion (§199). </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">And,
of course, it relates to the issue of an application coming before
one's mind. For to say that an application comes before my mind
<i>presupposes</i> that the application has already been established
as a practice. That is the context within which it makes sense to say
that the application occurs to me. Otherwise whatever comes before my
mind is meaningless (cf §6d). Meaning requires a practice (a use);
it cannot be willed into being by a mysterious mental act (“a
hocus-pocus that can be performed only by the mind” §454).</span></div>
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</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><u>§142</u></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>Normal
cases</i></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">At
the end of §141 Wittgenstein reiterates the importance of normal and
abnormal cases – it is because there is a normal case that we can
go awry in an abnormal one (and hence a picture can clash with its
application). He expands on this at the start of §142: “It is only
in normal cases that the use of a word is clearly laid out in advance
for us”. If you're familiar with the discussion of rule-following
(§§185-242) then the phrase “laid out in advance for us” ought
to be striking. It echoes phrases that reoccur in that discussion as
an articulation of logical compulsion: “The steps are determined by
the formula” (§189); “The machine seems already to contain its
own mode of operation” (§193); “the beginning of a series is a
visible section of rails invisibly laid to infinity” (§218); and
“All the steps are really already taken” (§219).</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">But
in §142 it is not the <span style="font-style: normal;">formula</span>
(or rule) that lays things out; rather it is the custom of applying
such rules in a particular way. We are taught to apply the rule “like
<i>this</i>” and we practice the application until we become
fluent. And now it's <i>as if</i> the steps are already taken – but
that's just a figurative way of saying that as I go about my business
I'm not at all puzzled by what to do next (cf §238). So what seemed
like a ghostly logical force turns out to be a matter of my reactive
capabilities (we've already seen an example of this in case (vii)
above).</span></div>
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</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>Abnormal
cases and interpretation</i></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">In
a normal case language runs on smoothly, but abnormal cases are
likely to catch us out or give us pause for thought. So, for example,
I tell someone to wear a black tie to a funeral and he turns up with
it tied round his wrist, because that's the custom where he's from.
For me, his custom is an abnormal case, but for him it's the other
way round. And if he was familiar with both customs he might wonder
whether I meant him to wear the tie on his wrist or round his neck –
that is, he would try to <i>interpret</i> my instruction, or <i>figure
out</i> what I meant. But if there was only one custom, and we were
both familiar with it, then no such interpretation would be
necessary; it simply wouldn't cross his mind that there were other
ways in which a tie might be worn – and nor would I have to
stipulate “wear a black tie <i>round your neck</i>”. In a normal
case there is no <span style="font-style: normal;">gap</span> between
a picture and its application, a word and the understanding of the
word. It is only in ambiguous cases that there's a need to interpret
– to figure things out. And in such a case successfully figuring
things out amounts to closing the gap. So if my friend is unsure
whether I mean him to wear the tie round his head or round his neck
he will ask me and I will tell him; he doesn't need me to further
explain what I mean by “round the neck”, even though here too a
doubt is <i>possible</i>. For both of us “wear the tie round your
neck” is a normal case and so he can apply the phrase without
having to think about it. The gap has been closed.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>The
same</i></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">It's
worth noting that we can express this point in terms of doing <i>the
same</i>. So, in a normal case we're untroubled by the question of
what counts as “going on in the same way”; it's business as usual
and we just get on with it. This not only applies to closed systems
(eg, reciting the alphabet) where saying “b” after “a” today
is the same as doing it yesterday, but also to open-ended systems
(eg, the number series) where saying “8004” after “8003” is
the same as saying “84” after “83”, even if we've never
counted that high before. And it also applies to grasping new rules
which are obvious variations on ones we've already mastered. So when
I'm confronted by a new object (eg, a dongle) and told its name, I
can at once use the new rule (“This → is called a 'dongle'”) in
all sorts of normal ways without further ado (“pass me the dongle”,
“put the dongle over there”, etc). This new rule is the same as,
or a simple variation on, countless others that I've learnt; I can
assimilate it into my repertoire without breaking stride. Not every
<i>new</i> case is an <i>abnormal</i> case.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>Natural
reactions</i></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">What
must be recognised here is that this is a matter of our <i>natural
reactions</i>. There is nothing inherent in the rule (or the logic of
the rule) that <span style="font-style: normal;">compels</span> us to
go on as we do. At each stage it is <span style="font-style: normal;">possible</span>
that we might not be able to grasp these regularities – to see them
as “going on in the same way”. (If this seems strange, don't
forget that many people simply cannot grasp quadratic equations no
matter how hard they try. And for all of us there are areas where our
abilities peter out while others march on untroubled.) It is a basic
fact about human beings that given certain types of training we
almost all react in more or less the same way. That is, various
things which <i>might</i> have baffled us simply don't trouble us at
all. This is the basis upon which language is built – not some
compelling, ineffable reflection of the a priori order of the world.
In other words, <i>Lebensform, nicht logische Form</i>.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">And
if our reactions were not what they are then different concepts –
different ways of living – might seem entirely natural to us. The
pupil in §185 is one such example; for him it is obvious that “1000,
1004, 1008” is the correct continuation of “+2”, and we cannot
demonstrate or prove that he is wrong. The disagreement between the
pupil and the teacher lies too deep for that; it is not at the level
of interpretation, but of natural reaction. To misquote §241, “this
is disagreement not in opinions, but rather in form of life”.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Of
course given his take on addition the pupil will not be able to live
as we do; all sorts of avenues will be closed to him. But what if he
doesn't <i>want</i> to live like us? What if he regards our
mathematical technique – and its various applications – as
ridiculous or disgusting? Obviously we would be deeply baffled by
such an attitude, and here you can see the <i>depth</i> of
mathematical rules. For it is indeed true, as we mentioned earlier,
that breaking the rules of arithmetic is not like breaking the speed
limit. But the difference lies in what is fundamental in <i>us</i>,
rather than our being attuned to an a priori order of the world (cf
RFM I, §74: “to the <i>depth</i> that we see in the essence there
corresponds the <i>deep</i> need for the convention”). Our
commitment to mathematical rules runs far deeper than our (often
somewhat grudging) commitment to the highway code. Indeed, in the
former case we are not usually so much as tempted by alternatives –
but this might not have been the case, as the pupil in §185
demonstrates. (I'm sometimes drawn to the idea that “3x0” is not
the same as “0x3”, since if you have three cows and do nothing to
them then you still have three cows, but three lots of nothing is
obviously nothing.)</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">It
is a similar (though not identical) story in other areas where our
rules strike us as deep. For example, we noted earlier that “red is
two meters high” made no sense. There is nothing we can do with
such a sentence, and this seems to reveal something deep about the
nature of colour – something that is written into the essence of
the world. But suppose that whenever we made a two meter-high object
(eg, a door) we felt an overriding need to colour it red. Any other
colour appalled us, as did red when applied to objects of other
heights. In such a case we might feel it was a <i>property</i> of
redness to be used in that way, and we might express this through the
phrase “red is two meters high”. Different natural reactions make
possible concepts which, to us, seem barely intelligible. Of course,
we could not decide on a whim to adopt such a practice; indeed it's
doubtful whether even the strictest upbringing could lead us to see
things in that way. We simply don't live like that. And that's why
the rules of language are deep and the rules of chess are not. But
it's a fact about <i>us</i>, not the essence of the world.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>Correctness
and customs</i></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">But
doesn't this bring us back to psychological compulsion? Isn't
Wittgenstein reducing language to a matter of instinct and
<span style="font-style: normal;">conditioning?</span> – automatic
stimulus responses, association, etc? How does the concept of
correctness get a foothold in such an account?</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Here
we must keep in mind that, as we've already noted, learning language
takes place within the context of an <i>established practice</i>. As
such, the standard of correctness is there waiting for us from the
very beginning. We are being inculcated into a <i>correct</i> way of
behaving. Certainly conditioning (or training) plays a part: through
reward and punishment, positive and negative feedback, <i>these</i>
reactions are encouraged while <i>those</i> are inhibited (cf
Wittgenstein's remarks about teaching in §§5-7, §143 and §208c).
But right from the start the punishments and rewards are accompanied
by words which categorize behaviour in terms of <span style="font-style: normal;">right</span>
and <span style="font-style: normal;">wrong</span>: “naughty”,
“good”, “correct”, “incorrect”, and so on. The focus is
not simply on learning to avoid punishment, but on learning to do
what is <i>right</i>. And embracing this concept of correctness is
part of what it means to learn language – so if a child is reciting
the alphabet and makes a mistake she will <i>react</i> to it as such.
That is, she will be annoyed or crestfallen, and not merely fearful
of punishment. She will also correct <i>herself</i> on occasion, and
those around her too. She will say “No! <i>That's not right</i>.”
Someone who acts solely out of fear, rather than out of a sense of
correctness, doesn't understand the game – for she is not <i>following</i>
its rules, she has merely been bullied into acting in accordance with
them. <i>Following</i> a rule entails a <i>commitment</i> to it as a
standard of correctness.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">And
this holds good even when our reactions are automatic or
unreflective. When counting up to ten, for example, we don't have to
think about what we're doing – we don't have to <i>figure out</i>
which number comes next (“I follow the rule <i>blindly</i>”
§219). But if we're challenged then we will justify ourselves in
terms of following the rule, doing the right thing, etc. We won't
simply shrug and say “Don't ask me – the numbers just came out of
their own accord”. In this type of case, “automatic” equates to
“fluent”, <i>not</i> “involuntary”. We're tempted to say that
because we don't think about what we're doing there can't be any
question of right or wrong. But rather: we're trained to be fluent so
that we can do the right thing without having to think about it. And
it is another basic fact about human beings that we can be brought to
do things in this way; our initial reactions can be modified and
refined, and these modifications can become ingrained so that they
amount to a <i>second-nature</i>.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Broadly
speaking, what this comes down to is that learning rules and
following them takes place within the context of a <i>human life</i>.
Teaching a child is not like fine-tuning a mechanism; there is a
<i>categorical</i> distinction between the two (you can program a
laptop, but you cannot punish it, or encourage it, or expect it to
act out of a sense of duty). And nor is it the same as house-training
a puppy – though here the comparison is much closer.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>Living
beings</i></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">This
intrinsic “humanness” of rule-following – its animality – is
touched upon in the way Wittgenstein develops his remark in §142
about normal and abnormal cases. As we've seen, a normal case is part
of an established <i>regularity</i> – a <i>custom</i> (cf §199).</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">And
particular instances of language use get their meaning from the fact
that they're embedded within such a regularity. (This, of course, is
just another way of saying that “the meaning of a word is its use
in the language” §43.) But our customs are themselves embedded
within the broader regularities of our lives as human beings. This is
what Wittgenstein alludes to in §142 when he suddenly jumps from
language-use to characteristic expressions of feeling (and we should
note that here Wittgenstein is moving from the circumstances within
which particular words or phrases have their home to the
circumstances within which language itself makes sense).</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">At
this point in the <i>Investigations</i> it is difficult to see
exactly what Wittgenstein is driving at (he admits as much in the
section's final sentence, which glances forward to the private
language discussion). What has the characteristic expression of
feelings got to do with the correct use of words or following a rule?
Well, for a start we might ask how we could <i>teach</i> rules
without natural expressions of satisfaction and displeasure – both
on the part of the teacher and the pupil. How would a pupil know what
to do if she was oblivious to signs of anger, encouragement or
frustration? Perhaps more fundamentally, what would be the difference
in the pupil's behaviour between <i>following</i> a rule and merely
doing as she pleased (which might happen to be in <i>accordance</i>
with the rule)? And once that distinction has been obliterated what's
left to the concept of rules at all?</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">The
temptation here is to suppose that this wouldn't be a problem because
we could still have all the relevant feelings, just as we have them
now, only we wouldn't express them. So although the teacher wouldn't
know whether the pupil was following the rule or doing as she
pleased, <i>she</i> would know – and that would be enough to
preserve the distinction. Exposing the incoherence of this suggestion
is one of the central tasks of the private language discussion
(§§243-315). That falls outside the remit of this current post, but
two points are worth making. First, the supposition that feelings are
conceptually distinct from their expression presents them as a kind
of <span style="font-style: normal;">inner</span><i> object</i>. Like
an apple in a box, a feeling is either there or it isn't – whether
or not we let someone know about it is irrelevant. We've already seen
propositions, word-meanings, understanding and rules presented as
inner objects, and now we can add feelings to the list. The question
is: does this last example make any more sense than the others?
Wittgenstein's answer is no; it misdescribes the concept of feelings
(sensations, etc) to present them in this way. In certain crucial
respects having a pain is <i>not </i><span style="font-style: normal;">like</span>
having an apple in a box, and construing sensations on the analogy of
physical objects makes them completely mysterious – just as it does
with the concepts of understanding and rules (cf §293). Secondly, if
the difference between following a rule and doing as you pleased
rested upon the presence or absence of an inner “feeling-object”
then “thinking one was following a rule would be the same thing as
following it” (§202) – and in that case there would be no
question of correctly or incorrectly following a rule. Whatever <i>felt</i>
right would <i>be</i> right.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Feelings
and their characteristic expression are conceptually woven together,
and this expressive regularity is a precondition of rule-following –
and hence of language. That is not to say, however, that such
expressiveness is <span style="font-style: normal;">part</span> of the
language-game <i>itself</i>. You do not use a word <span style="font-style: normal;">wrongly</span>
if you fail to pull certain faces when you say it. Rather,
characteristic expressions form part of the general framework within
which our language-games have their life. On this or that occasion we
might speak without any particular expression, but “if rule became
exception, and exception rule; or both became phenomena of roughly
equal frequency – our normal language-games would thereby lose
their point” (§142).</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>The
world</i></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Wittgenstein
further underlines this comment with a rather different example: what
would happen to the language-game of weighing objects (eg, lumps of
cheese) and pricing them accordingly if they frequently and
arbitrarily changed size? Clearly such a practice would become
useless insofar as it was intended to ensure that everyone paid the
same for the same amount of cheese. So on the one hand we have the
expressive regularity of living beings, and on the other the
regularity of the world in which they're situated. And these two
features, <i>taken together</i>, form the broad context within which
our language-games mean what they do – they are the “extremely
general facts of nature” mentioned in the boxed remark at the end
of §142.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">It
is significant, I think, that Wittgenstein's example impacts upon a
<span style="font-style: normal;">mathematical</span> practice. As
such, it forms a counterpart to the pupil's natural reactions in
§185. Different natural reactions could produce a different
mathematics, and different regularities in the world could render <i>our</i>
mathematics pointless. In both cases the aim is to loosen the grip of
the idea that mathematical rules express a metaphysical essence. And
in both cases the point holds more generally. We have already seen
this with regard to natural reactions and the rules of language; we
can now make a similar move with regard to the world. Suppose, for
example, that whenever any object reached two meters high it became
red – and only two meter-high objects were red. So as a tree grew
it turned red when it reached two meters and changed back when it
grew taller. Here again we might find it natural to say “red is two
meters high”, and here again what seemed like a necessary truth is
revealed as contingent.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">But
this emphasis on the regularity of the world can easily seem as if it
undermines Wittgenstein's commitment to the autonomy of grammar.
Doesn't it bring us back to a Tractarian position whereby language
simply reflects the behaviour of objects? But this thought misses the
subtlety of the situation sketched out in §142. For Wittgenstein
does not say that our language-games would become <i>impossible</i>
if nature changed its ways; rather, they would lose their <i>point</i>.
And, of course, the point of a language-game is something supplied by
<i>us</i>, not the behaviour of objects. Going back to the cheese
example, there would be nothing to stop us continuing with the game,
just so long as we weren't bothered by the fact that it no longer
resulted in the same amount of cheese for the same amount of money.
Instead, we might see it as a kind of lottery, and look forward to
finding out if today we were going to be lucky or unlucky.
(Wittgenstein's example of the wood sellers in RFM I, §§148-150
makes a similar point.)</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Language
is not simply an inert mirror of the world; it is part of what we <i>do</i>
(cf §25). Our various activities – building things, mucking about,
grieving, making love, etc – are soaked through with it. But, of
course, these activities take place in the world – and the world as
it <i>is</i>, not as we might want it to be. We cannot change the
world on a whim, and nor can we recreate it by dreaming up new
concepts. Indeed, the world's independence forms part of the
scaffolding within which our language and our concepts make sense. If
the world is an illusion – a kind of conceptual mirage – then I
am not now really thinking or writing (cf <i>On Certainty</i>, §676).</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><i>The
essence of language</i></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">With
this observation we have, in a sense, come full-circle. We began in
§136 with the Tractarian notion of propositional form, which sought
to present the essence of language as something sublime – a deified
phenomenon whose crystalline logic reflects the a priori order of the
world. But now we have a very different conception – not a rival
account of the essence of language, but perhaps a description of the
most general circumstances within which language finds a home: <i>living
beings in the natural world</i>.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Within
this description, language is contingent rather than a priori;
pluralistic rather than reductive; active rather than reflective; and
amorphous rather than sharply defined. It has an endless,
unpredictable array of possible forms and functions, rather than one
essential form, one essential function. Above all, it is a natural
phenomenon – not an intrusion of divine purity into the sordid
world of mud and phlegm. “This seems to abolish logic, but does not
do so” (§242). That is, it does not turn philosophy into a form of
Naturalism continuous with science. For, as we have noted, the logic
of our language – its grammar – is not beholden to the world; it
is an expression of the form of life in which it arises. To be sure,
this form of life is a natural, physical creature – <i>that</i> is
itself part of the logic of language. But here “natural” is being
used in a sense that would not be recognised inside a laboratory.
Language-using forms of life (paradigmatically human beings) are not
ghosts in the machine. But neither are they machines <i>simpliciter</i>.
They are: people.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">This
way of putting it can make it seem as if Wittgenstein is proposing a
<span style="font-style: normal;">theory</span>. And that's because
it's likely to strike us as <span style="font-style: normal;">controversial</span>
rather than platitudinous. It's at odds with how we tend to <i>think</i>
about these things, and with the educated chatter considered
respectable in our culture (which gains its purist distillation in
philosophy). But Wittgenstein is <i>not</i> putting forward a theory.
He is drawing our attention to the way in which we do, in fact, live.
It's a simple fact that, as alluded to above, when I talk with a
friend I don't regard him as a biological machine – and nor as a
spirit lodged within such a machine. My attitude is altogether
different. And that's not because I subscribe to some grand theory
about about the essence of humanity.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.25cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">My
attitude towards him is an attitude towards a soul. I am not of the
<i>opinion</i> that he has a soul.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div align="RIGHT" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">PPF
iv, §22</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b></b><i></i><u></u><sub></sub><sup></sup><strike></strike><br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b></b><i></i><u></u><sub></sub><sup></sup><strike></strike><br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b></b><i></i><u></u><sub></sub><sup></sup><strike></strike><br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b></b><i></i><u></u><sub></sub><sup></sup><strike></strike><br /></div>
<b></b><i></i><u></u><sub></sub><sup></sup><strike></strike>Philip Cartwrighthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11458571502536123264noreply@blogger.com7tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6701420428167031490.post-59275599062561035482018-06-27T14:59:00.000+01:002018-06-27T14:59:26.894+01:00A resolute translation of the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b>Tractatus
Logico-Philosophicus</b></span></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: large;">a resolute translation</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
1 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
1.1 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
1.11 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
1.12 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
1.13 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
1.2 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
1.21 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.01 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.011 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.012 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.0121 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.0122 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.0123 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.01231 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.0124 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.013 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.0131 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.014 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.0141 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.02 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.0201 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.021 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.0211 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.0212 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.022 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.023 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.0231 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.023 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.0233 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.02331 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.024 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.025 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.0251 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.026 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.027 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.0271 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.0272 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.03 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.031 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.032 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.033 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.034 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.04 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.05 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.06 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.061 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.062 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.063 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.1 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.11 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.12 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.13 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.131 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.14 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.141 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.15 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.151 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.1511 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.1512 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.15121 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.1513 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.1514 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.1515 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.16 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.161 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.17 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.171 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.172 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.173 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.174 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.18 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.181 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.182 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.19 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.2 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.201 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.202 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.203 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.21 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.22 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.221 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.222 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.223 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.224 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
2.225 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.001 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.01 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.02 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.03 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.031 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.032 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.0321 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.04 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.05 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.1 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.11 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.12 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.13 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.14 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.141 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.142 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.143 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.1431 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.1432 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.144 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.2 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.201 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.202 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.203 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.21 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.22 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.221 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.23 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.24 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.25 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.251 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.26 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.261 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.262 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.263 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.3 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.31 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.311 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.312 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.313 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.314 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.315 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.316 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.317 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.318 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.32 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.321 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.322 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.323 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.324 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.325 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.326 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.327 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.328 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.33 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.331 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.332 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.333 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.334 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.34 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.341 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.3411 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.342 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.3421 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.343 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.344 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.3441 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.3442 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.4 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.41 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.411 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.42 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
3.5 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.002 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.003 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.0031 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.01 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.011 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.012 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.013 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.014 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.0141 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.015 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.016 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.02 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.021 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.022 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.023 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.024 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.025 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.026 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.027 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.03 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.031 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.0311 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.0312 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.032 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.04 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.041 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.0411 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.0412 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.05 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.06 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.061 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.062 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.0621 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.063 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.064 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.0641 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.1 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.11 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.111 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.112 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.1121 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.1122 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.113 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.114 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.115 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.116 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.12 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.121 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.1211 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.1212 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.1213 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.122 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.1221 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.123 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.124 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.1241 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.125 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.1251 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.1252 Iggle
piggle.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.126 We
can now talk about formal concepts, in the same sense that we speak
of formal properties.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
(I
introduce this expression in order to exhibit the source of confusion
between formal concepts and concepts proper, which pervades the whole
of traditional logic.)</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
When
something falls under a formal concept as one of its objects, this
cannot be expressed by means of a proposition. Instead it is shown in
the very sign for this object. (A name shows that it signifies an
object, a sign for a number that it signifies a number, etc.)</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Formal
concepts cannot, in fact, be represented by means of a function, as
concepts proper can.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
For
their characteristics, formal properties, are not expressed by means
of functions.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
expression for a formal property is a feature of certain symbols.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
So
the sign for the characteristics of a formal concept is a distinctive
feature of all symbols whose meanings fall under the concept.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
So
the expression for a formal concept is a propositional variable in
which this distinctive feature alone is constant.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.127 The
propositional variable signifies the formal concept, and its values
signify the objects that fall under the concept.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.1271 Every
variable is the sign for a formal concept.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
For
every variable represents a constant form that all its values
possess, and this can be regarded as a formal property of those
values.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
4.1272 Thus
the variable name 'x' is the proper sign for the pseudo-concept
<i>object</i>.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Wherever
the word 'object' ('thing', etc.) is correctly used, it is expressed
in conceptual notation by a variable name.</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
For
example, in the proposition 'There are 2 objects which...”, it is
expressed by '(<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">Ǝ</span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">
x, y)...'.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"> Wherever
it is used in a different way, that is as a proper concept-word,
nonsensical pseudo-propositions are the result.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"> So
one cannot say, for example, 'There are objects', as one might say,
'There are books'. And it is just as impossible to say, 'There are
100 objects', or 'There are </span><span style="font-family: Tahoma;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><b>א</b></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">(o) objects'.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"> And
it is nonsensical to speak of the </span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>total
number of objects</i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"> The
same applies to the words 'complex', 'fact', 'function', 'number',
etc.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"> They
all signify formal concepts, and are represented in conceptual
notation by variables, not by functions or classes (as Frege and
Russell believed).</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"> '1
is a number', 'There is only one zero', and all similar expressions
are nonsensical.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"> (It
is just as nonsensical to say, 'There is only one 1', as it would be
to say, '2+2 at 3 o'clock equals 4'.)</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.12721 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.1273 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.1274 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.128 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.2 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.21 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.211 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.22 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.221 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.2211 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.23 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.24 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.241 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.242 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.243 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.25 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.26 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.27 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.28 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.3 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.31 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.4 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.41 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.411 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.42 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.43 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.431 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.44 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.441 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.442 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.45 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.46 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.461 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.4611 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.462 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.463 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.464 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.465 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.466 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.4661 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.5 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.51 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.52 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4.53 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.01 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.02 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.1 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.101 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.11 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.12 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.121 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.122 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.123 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.124 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.1241 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.13 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.131 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.1311 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.132 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.133 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.134 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.135 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.136 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.1361 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.1362 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.1363 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.14 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.141 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.142 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.143 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.15 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.151 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.1511 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.152 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.153 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.154 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.155 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.156 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.2 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.21 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.22 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.23 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.231 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.232 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.233 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.234 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.2341 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.24 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.241 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.242 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.25 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.251 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.252 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.2521 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.2522 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.2523 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.253 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.254 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.3 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.31 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.32 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.4 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.41 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.42 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.43 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.44 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.441 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.442 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.45 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.451 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.452 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.453 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.454 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.4541 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.46 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.461 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.4611 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.47 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.471 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.4711 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.472 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.473 Logic
must look after itself.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"> If
a sign is </span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>possible</i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">,
then it is also capable of signifying. Whatever is possible in logic
is also permitted. (The reason why 'Socrates is identical' means
nothing is that there is no property called 'identical'. The
proposition is nonsensical because we have failed to make an
arbitrary determination, and not because the symbol, in itself, would
be illegitimate.)</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"> In
a certain sense, we cannot make mistakes in logic.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.4731 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.4732 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.47321 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.4733 Frege
says that any legitimately constructed proposition must have a sense.
And I say that any possible proposition is legitimately constructed,
and, if it has no sense, that can only be because we have failed to
give a </span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>meaning</i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">
to some of its constituents.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"> (Even
if we think we have done so.)</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"> Thus
the reason why 'Socrates is identical' says nothing is that we have
not given </span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>any
adjectival</i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"> meaning to
the word 'identical'. For when it appears as a sign for identity, it
symbolizes in an entirely different way – the signifying relation
is a different one – therefore the symbols also are entirely
different in the two cases: the two symbols have only the sign in
common, and that is an accident.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.474 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.475 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.476 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.5 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.501 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.502 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.503 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.51 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.511 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.512 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.513 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.514 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.515 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.5151 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.52 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.521 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.522 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.523 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.524 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.525 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.526 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.5261 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.5262 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.53 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.5301 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.5302 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.5303 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.531 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.532 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.5321 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.533 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.534 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.535 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.5351 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.5352 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.54 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.541 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.542 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.5421 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.5422 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.5423 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.55 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.551 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.552 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.5521 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.553 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.554 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.5541 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.5542 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.555 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.556 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.5561 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.5562 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.5563 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.557 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.5571 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.6 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.61 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.62 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.621 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.63 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.631 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.632 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.633 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.6331 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.634 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.64 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5.641 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.001 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.002 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.01 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.02 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.021 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.022 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.03 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.031 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.1 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.11 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.111 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.112 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.113 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.12 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.1201 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.1202 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.1203 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.121 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.122 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.1221 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.1222 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.1223 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.1224 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.123 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.1231 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.1232 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.1233 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.124 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.125 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.1251 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.126 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.1261 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.1262 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.1263 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.1264 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.1265 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.127 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.1271 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.13 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.2 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.21 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.211 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.22 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.23 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.231 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.232 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.2321 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.2322 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.2323 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.233 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.2331 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.234 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.2341 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.24 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.241 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.3 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.31 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.32 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.321 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.3211 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.33 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.34 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.341 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.342 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.343 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.3431 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.3432 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.35 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.36 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.361 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.3611 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.36111 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.362 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.363 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.3631 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.36311 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.37 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.371 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.372 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.373 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.374 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.375 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.3751 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.4 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.41 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.42 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.421 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.422 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.423 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.43 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.431 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.4311 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.4312 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.432 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.4321 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.44 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.45 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.5 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.51 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.52 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.521 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.522 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.53 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">6.54 My
propositions serve as elucidations in the following way: anyone who
understands me eventually recognizes them as nonsensical, when he has
used them – as steps – to climb up beyond them. (He must, so to
speak, throw away the ladder after he has climbed up it.)</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"> He
must transcend these propositions, and then he will see the world
aright.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 100%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">7 Iggle
piggle.</span></div>
<b></b><i></i><u></u><sub></sub><sup></sup><strike></strike>Philip Cartwrighthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11458571502536123264noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6701420428167031490.post-648271728308635212017-01-14T12:36:00.000+00:002017-01-14T12:36:01.189+00:00The Inner and the Outer<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><i>Approaching
the Private Language Argument</i></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><i><br /></i></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">As
a prelude to discussing what is generally called “the private
language argument” (<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">§§243-315),
I want to consider some general questions about its role in the
book's over-arching strategy. What is its significance? What is it
actually about? And why is it there at all? More specifically, I want
to suggest that the private language “chapter” can helpfully be
seen as a continuation of Wittgenstein's on-going struggle against
what might be called “the mythology of the inner”. It is a
struggle that begins in earnest at §138 with the discussion of
understanding, and continues more or less uninterrupted for the rest
of the book. It mostly concerns our psychological concepts
(“thinking”, “knowing”, “intending”, etc), but in the
private language chapter the focus shifts to our </span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><i>sensation</i></span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">
language. So in one way the private language chapter is a special
case with its own peculiar traps and pit-falls. But it can also be
seen as the beating heart of the struggle itself, since it is in the
area of sensation-language that Wittgenstein's claims about meaning
and use come up against their most forceful challenge. As a result,
certain fundamental elements of his philosophy (most notably, the
nature of grammar and the significance of living beings) are brought
much closer to the surface than has previously been the case.</span></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><i>Inner
and Outer Language</i></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">I'll
begin with an outline of “the inner” and how it relates to the
rest of our language.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">First,
we use language with regard to the world: buttons, cars, snowflakes,
and so on. This, we might say, is talk about the </span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><i>physical</i></span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">
world. We talk about where things are, how they stand in relation to
each other, and in numerous other ways. Much of the time people are
included in this talk in a more or less straightforward manner: Jones
is next to me in the car and the button is on her coat. In this
respect, people are physical objects like buttons and cars. Not all
our talk about people, however, is interchangeable with our talk
about things. A person can run down to the sea and a river can run
down to the sea, but a person can </span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><i>try</i></span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">
to run down to the sea, whereas it would be an anthropomorphism to
say that a river tried to do that. Rain can act upon limestone, but
it can't act </span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><i>stupidly</i></span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">;
people, on the other hand, most certainly can. So can dogs and many
other types of animal (but not all – I'm not sure what it would
mean, for example, to say that an ant made a mistake). Here, then, we
have a clear distinction between human beings (together with certain
other living creatures) and inanimate objects. And this distinction
is carried forward into the language we use to express how things are
with ourselves: people have opinions, buttons don't. Such talk stands
in contrast to that about the physical world and can be very roughly
divided into two groups: </span>
</div>
<ol type="a">
<li><div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Psychological
language. This includes talk about knowing, understanding,
believing, thinking, imagining, wanting and intending.</span></div>
</li>
<li><div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Sensation
language. This includes moods, feelings (eg, happy, sad, angry,
bored) and bodily sensations such as pain, giddiness, twinges, etc.
It can also include certain vivid impressions made by the physical
world: a glorious sunset, perhaps, or cold water running over your
fingers on a scorchingly hot day. Most of the time, however, we
would not count experience of the world as a sensation. I am now
looking at my laptop screen, but it would be odd to say that I am
having a </span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><i>sensation</i></span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">
of seeing the screen. I'm just looking at the screen.</span></div>
</li>
</ol>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">As
I say, this is only a very rough division; there are all kinds of
exceptions and overlaps, both between the two groups and within them.
“Desire”, for example, might easily be placed in either group as
it is closely bound up with both wanting and feeling. And how alike
are the items within each group? How far is knowing like intending?
To what extent is feeling happy similar to feeling a twinge in your
foot? Our language in this area is both ragged and extremely subtle.
Nonetheless, the above account helps give shape to a striking
distinction we make between physical objects on the one hand, and our
thoughts and feelings on the other. We often talk about these latter
items as being part of our <i>inner</i> world, and this way of
putting things forms an immensely rich and varied vernacular. We have
“inner lives” and “inner selves”; we feel joy welling up
inside us and thoughts pop into our heads; we feel things in our
bones and we know things in our hearts. The lexicon of the inner
comes very readily to us; we learn it without difficulty as children,
and use it constantly throughout our lives in ways that are (for the
most part) easily understood.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">So
in terms of its everyday use our talk of the inner is unproblematic.
Why then did Wittgenstein consider it such a key source of
philosophical error? Well, we should notice first of all that its
grammar is similar to our talk of the physical world in certain
crucial respects. For example, we talk of having a pain just as we
talk about having a button. Moreover, if I don't want you to know
that I'm in pain I <i>might</i> be able to fool you by acting as if
everything was fine. In such a case we could say I was <i>hiding</i>
my pain, which <i>seems</i> straightforwardly analogous to hiding a
button (and here you can see the aptness of the “inner”
vernacular; my pain is hidden inside me like a button in a locked
drawer). At the same time, however, the grammar of the inner
frequently diverges from the grammar of physical objects. For
example, we don't say “I have jealousy”, but “I am jealous”
or “I feel jealous”. Does this just reflect different ways of
saying the same thing, or does it betoken a substantive difference in
kind? Consider also that if I have a button I can specify where it
is, but if I say I'm jealous, what do I reply when someone asks where
my jealousy is located? The very idea of jealousy having a spatial
location seems ridiculous, like saying that time has a colour. So
although the inner is in some ways analogous to the physical world,
it is also curiously different.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Reflecting
on these kind of examples might easily lead us to conclude that we
are dealing here with two distinct <i>realms</i>: the “outer”
realm of physical space, populated by physical objects interacting in
various ways, and the “inner” realm, which is like physical space
<i>only non-spatial</i> (the mind, or perhaps the soul), and is
populated by inner objects, which are like physical objects <i>only
non-physical</i>. But what on earth do we mean by a non-spatial
space? And how can an inner object be <i>like</i> a physical object
if it is non-physical? And since they are so utterly different, how
do the inner and the outer realms ever make contact? Is such a thing
even <i>possible</i>? As soon as we start to reflect on it, our talk
of the inner ceases to be unproblematic and starts to look distinctly
mysterious. Like Augustine (§89), we want to say “when nobody asks
me I know what it is, but if I am asked what it is and try to
explain, I am baffled”. </span>
</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Here
we might reflect that there is something metaphorical or figurative
about all this talk of the inner. After all, when I refer to my
“inner self” I don't mean that it is literally inside my body –
as if you might find it by cutting me open. Likewise, if I say “I
have a picture in my mind” this is clearly not like having a photo
in my wallet. A photo is a certain size; we can look at it close to
or from a distance; it was taken on a specific day; it doesn't change
just because we want it to; and we can copy it to produce a drawing.
None of this applies to my mental image. Picture the house you grew
up in. Which <i>day</i> does this picture refer to? Now try copying a
photo and then copying a mental image; you will see how different the
two activities are. So we might say that having a mental image is, at
best, <i>analogous</i> to having a picture. It is a turn of phrase
which is more or less apt but shouldn't be taken literally.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">This
notion of metaphorical language, however, is itself problematic. In
normal circumstances if I use a metaphor (eg, “that man is a
mountain come to life”) I am prepared to explain it in more sober,
objective terms (eg, “I meant that he is unusually large, imposing
and rugged”). But what is the more sober account of “I have a
picture in my mind”? Isn't that perfectly straightforward? </span>
</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">So
our talk of the inner borrows selectively from the language of the
physical world in ways we find apt – yet it does not do so in lieu
of a more <i>objective</i> way of talking. And now we can feel caught
on the horns of a dilemma: either we take this talk at face value, in
which case we get tangled up in the mysteries and absurdities of the
“inner realm”, or else we see it as mere colourful language with
nothing substantial behind it, in which case we are drawn towards
denying the very existence of thoughts and feelings in anything like
their normal form.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">This,
I think, gives an outline of the dispute between what I am going to
call Idealist and Materialist philosophies. By “Idealist” here I
mean philosophies which give credence to the notion of the inner
realm in some form or other. This includes vast swathes of modern
western philosophy: the inner is evinced in the notion of “ideas”
as used by Descartes, Locke and Berkeley; it is there in Hume's
“impressions” and Kant's phenomenal world of raw “intuitions”
arranged into experience by a priori laws of thought; it is there in
the post-Kantian idealism of Hegel, Schopenhauer, Bradley and
McTaggart; it is there in phenomenologists such as Husserl, the
existentialism of Sartre and Russell's notion of sense data; and it
is there in present-day cognitive philosophy with its talk of qualia
and aspect dualism. We might say of all these philosophies that they
start from a first-person perspective (which is viewed as a
privileged, uniquely certain vantage point), and then muster various
theories in an attempt to argue their way out into the third-person
world of physical objects and (as a kind of cherry on the cake) other
minds. </span>
</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">By
“Materialist”, on the other hand, I mean philosophies which
attempt to write off the inner realm as a type of fiction. This group
is considerably smaller, and has probably only come to genuine
prominence from the middle of the 20<sup>th</sup> Century onwards.
Today, however, it more or less represents an intellectual orthodoxy
(you can see this from the fact that much of modern cognitive
philosophy reacts <i>against it</i>,
whilst at the same time taking as read the basic world-view upon
which it is founded). It is committed to a form of Realism, and to
science as the only legitimate method of describing the real world.
In other words, it starts from a doggedly third-person (“objective”)
perspective and, as such, it is almost honour-bound to look askance
at something as mysterious and incorporeal as the so-called inner
realm. Typically it seeks to define the inner out of existence,
reducing it to either behaviour or brain-states (or sometimes a
combination of the two). So to say “I am heart-broken” is either
a disguised description of how I am behaving, or a theoretical
statement about what I suspect is happening in my brain.
Understandably, many have felt that such accounts do scant justice to
the human condition. They don't so much throw out the baby with the
bath water as chuck away the baby while carefully ensuring that not a
drop of water is spilt.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<br /><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Wittgenstein
and the Inner</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Wittgenstein
refuses to throw in his lot with either camp. So, on one side, he
seeks to expose the deep incoherence of the inner realm as
constructed by Idealists. They have (he claims) taken our ordinary
talk of thoughts, feelings and sensations and turned it into a
bewitching fantasy land. As an alternative, he invites us to look at
the actual role played in our lives by talk of the inner. In which
contexts does it take place? What are its <i>consequences</i>?
If we do this, he suggests, we will see that, despite certain
superficial similarities, the language-games we play in relation to
the inner are importantly different from the ones we play when
talking about physical objects and processes. They simply do not
amount to the same thing.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">So
far this just sounds like an argument in favour of some form
Materialism – most likely Behaviourism. But that is to
misunderstand the <i>depth</i>
of the distinction Wittgenstein wants us to draw between talk of the
inner and talk of physical objects. And actually Wittgenstein accuses
Idealists and Materialists of making the <i>same</i>
basic error in this regard: they both work from a mistakenly narrow
view of how language functions. More specifically, they both tacitly
assume that the essence of language is to <i>describe</i>
states of affairs (“The general form of a proposition is: This is
how things stand”, TLP, 4.5). So the Idealist assumes that when we
talk about (eg) our feelings we are describing how things stand in a
way that's directly analogous to describing a physical situation; the
latter deals with physical objects while the former deals with
non-physical (“mental”, “phenomenal”, “logical”) ones.
The Materialist (rightly) disputes the coherence of positing such
non-physical entities, but is then drawn to ask “So what <i>are</i>
we describing here?” – since it is taken for granted that <i>we
must be describing something</i>.
And now the only plausible candidate seems to be: more physical
objects. Hence our talk of the inner is really talk of the physical
world in disguise, and the common belief in feelings, etc, is a kind
of superstition (“folk-psychology”) which ought to be translated
into physical language (behaviour, brain-states, etc) in the
interests of objectivity. But this is an absurd outcome, and we are
likely to have some sympathy with the interlocutor's impassioned
retort at §296:</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-left: 1.25cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
“<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">[…] but there is a Something
there all the same, which accompanies my cry of pain! And it is on
account of this that I utter it. And this Something is what is
important – and frightful.”</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">And now we're back where we started.
</span>
</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">How do we escape from this impasse?
At §304 Wittgenstein offers us this:</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-left: 1.25cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">The paradox disappears only if we
make a radical break with the idea that language always functions in
one way, always serves the same purpose: to convey thoughts – which
may be about houses, pains, good and evil, or whatever.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">In
other words, language is <i>not</i> always and forever about
describing (our thoughts about) states of affairs. This I think is a
crucial comment in the private language “chapter”, and it is
important to keep it in mind throughout the discussion. (It actually
draws upon points made way back in §§23-27,
and §24 explicitly flags up solipsism as a danger inherent in
pointlessly assimilating types of sentence so that language always
seems to work in one particular way. Now we start to see what
Wittgenstein was getting at.)</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<br /><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Wittgenstein
and Sensation-Language</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">I
think we can get a deeper appreciation of Wittgenstein's position,
and why the question of the inner is so central to his later work, if
we consider his philosophical development. And the first thing to
mention here is that his early philosophy is thoroughly Idealist (in
the sense outlined above). In the <i>Tractatus</i> a proposition
makes a thought perceptible (3.1). A thought is a (logical) picture
of a possible fact (3), and it is therefore itself a fact (2.141). In
other words, a thought, like any other fact, is a combination of
simple objects. Notoriously, Wittgenstein says nothing about what
simple objects actually <i>are</i>, either as they occur in thoughts
or in the world, but it hardly seems a stretch to conclude that we
are being presented here with two realms – the inner and the outer
– both populated by sets of objects which mirror each other in
their combinational possibilities.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">But
actually the situation is rather stranger than that, for the “outer”
realm, as presented in the <i>Tractatus</i>, has more than a whiff of
the “inner” about it. Wittgenstein’s simple objects seem
equivocal. For one thing, they are not physical objects in a
straightforward sense – they are not atoms or anything like that.
They are <i>logical</i> objects, and their simplicity is a logical
simplicity. As such, they represent <i>the given</i>: what has to
exist if language and thought are to be possible. How do we come to
know these objects? Wittgenstein doesn't say, but he probably follows
something like Russell's theory of knowledge by acquaintance, which
is itself part of his wider theory of sense data and logical atomism.
We <i>experience</i> objects, and we do so with a directness that
excludes doubt. If that is not the case then it becomes impossible to
compare a picture with reality in order to see if it is correct. Why?
Because if doubt was possible we would always need a further picture
(or proposition) to determine the accuracy of the previous one. </span>
</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">All
this makes logical objects seem perilously close to
sensation-objects. Wittgenstein would have denied, however, that he
was presenting an Idealist theory in the sense of, say, Berkeley's
<i>Principles of Human Knowledge</i>
– and he would have done so on logical grounds. It is of the
essence of objects that they combine to form facts, and these facts
must be real, they must be more than mere impressions, or else they
couldn't be <i>pictured</i>.
The reality of objects is a condition of the possibility of
picturing, and the possibility of picturing is a condition of the
possibility of thought itself. So, on the one hand, objects <i>must</i>
be at least akin to phenomena, but, on the other hand, they also <i>must</i>
give rise to an objectively real world. “These concepts:
proposition, language, thought, world, stand in a line one behind the
other, each equivalent to each” (§96), and each vouchsafes the
reality of the others. And the glue that holds everything together is
<i>logical form</i>:
propositional form, pictorial form, objective form.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">The
<i>Tractatus</i> was finished by 1918 and published in 1921;
Wittgenstein returned to philosophy in January 1929, ostensibly to
clear up some minor difficulties with the work pointed out by FP
Ramsey. Remarkably quickly, however, consideration of those “minor”
difficulties led to the unravelling of the work's whole structure.
Equally remarkable is how soon Wittgenstein began to identify talk of
the inner as a crucial part of the problem. As early as that summer
we get:</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-left: 1.25cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><span style="color: #131313;">It
is as if the phenomenological language led me into a bewitched swamp
where everything tangible disappears. (MS 105, p116)</span> </span>
</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">And
then, the following October:</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-left: 1.25cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><span style="color: #131313;">The
worst philosophical mistakes come always about when one wants to
apply our usual —physical — language in the field of the
immediately given. […] All our ways of speaking are borrowed from
the normal physical language and are not to be used in epistemology
or phenomenology without putting the subject to a wrong light.</span>
(MS 107, p160)</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 103%;">
<br /><br />
</div>
<div style="line-height: 103%;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">By
1933 his new philosophical method has developed substantially, and we
get a somewhat broader formulation: “In the theories and battles of
philosophy we find words whose meanings are well-known to us from
everyday life used in an ultra-physical sense” (<i>Big Typescript</i>,
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">§91).
And, more strikingly still: “An entire mythology is laid down in
our language” (ibid, §93).</span></span></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 103%;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 103%;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">I
think reflection on this development helps explain certain features
of the </span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><i>Philosophical
Investigations</i></span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">.
First, it is striking (to someone reading the book in 2017) how
little time Wittgenstein devotes to undermining reductive,
Materialist approaches to the inner. He is, of course, aware of
Behaviourism, talk of brain-states, etc, and he provides devastating
remarks about their lack of coherence. But he does so almost in
passing, and compared to the detailed, sustained assault he mounts on
the inner realm there's something cursory about his treatment of such
topics. Now I think we can see why. It's not just that Materialist
explanations have far more cultural purchase in the 21</span><sup><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">st</span></sup><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">
century than they did in the '30s and '40s; Wittgenstein's whole
philosophical milieu was steeped in a thoroughly sublimated
conception of the inner. It formed the deep-lying, unquestioned
background to his early philosophy, and when he came to see it as a
fundamental error it was something he had to struggle to break free
from.</span></span></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 103%; margin-left: 1.25cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">A
</span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><i>picture</i></span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">
held us captive. And we couldn't get outside it, for it lay in our
language, and language seemed only to repeat it to us inexorably.</span></span></span></div>
<div align="RIGHT" style="line-height: 103%; margin-left: 1.25cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><i>Philosophical
Investigations</i></span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">,
§115</span></span></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 103%;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">And
the “picture” here is the “mythology” of the inner.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 103%;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 103%;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Wittgenstein's
personal journey away from the logical doctrines of the <i>Tractatus</i>
and into the “bewitched swamp” of the inner is echoed in the
<i>Investigations</i> itself. In §§134-137 he conducts a brief,
scathing demolition of propositional form. But as I mentioned above,
in the <i>Tractatus</i> logical form is the glue that binds
everything together. If propositional form is a mirage, then what
becomes of <i>pictorial</i> form? And that, of course, is the form
which runs through our <i>thoughts</i> (<i>qua</i> pictures) and
ensures their harmony with both our language and the world. So
questioning propositional form brings us abruptly up against our
conception of the inner and the role it plays in our lives.
Investigating this sprawling, interconnected web of concepts is the
predominant task of the rest of the book.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 103%;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 103%;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">As
we have seen, he begins at §138 with the concept of understanding.
This is one of the “psychological” words from group (a) above.
The mythology of the inner presents understanding to us as a state or
process; understanding a word involves coming into possession of an
inner sample, or rule, which dictates our future use of that word,
and is accompanied by a characteristic experience of understanding
which lets us know that we do now understand. (These two notions of
possession and knowledge will reappear in the private language
discussion.) There are numerous everyday turns of phrase that, at
least on the surface, strengthen the appeal of this picture (the one
Wittgenstein considers most closely is “now I can go on”). Be
that as it may, if we consider the fundamental grammar involved we
see that the criterion for ascribing understanding is not the
attainment of an inner object or state, but reliably correct
<i>performance</i>. If I exclaim “I've got it!” but then go on to
make a hash of things we would typically (but not always) say that I
hadn't understood after all. Feeling you understand isn't the same as
actually understanding.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 103%;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 103%;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">From
about §185 the discussion focuses more narrowly on rule-following,
but the struggle against the mythology of the inner continues. For it
is tempting to construe a rule as a kind of logical machine, residing
in the mind (the machine in the ghost), which relentlessly churns out
correct applications. But this is just a poetic response to the
impressive way in which we can come to follow rules blindly and
without effort. Our fluency is not the result of some logical form
that ripples through all possible worlds, ensuring that everything
moves in perfect step. It is a thoroughly contingent fact about the
abilities of (most) human beings – part of our natural history. As
such, it is not the <i>result</i> of the rule; it is part of the
broad context within which rules exist. Moreover, the rule does not
<i>produce</i> correct applications, for although the rule gives a
standard of correctness it only does so as part of a practice or
custom which establishes what <i>counts</i> as correctly following
the rule. To put it another way, you can explain the moves of the
game in terms of its rules, but you can also explain the game's rules
in terms of its moves. The two hang together and co-define each
other. Rule-following is not an intrusion of sublime purity into the
sordid world of sweat and mud, made possible by a miraculous
go-between called the mind. It depends on the shared practices,
reactions and judgements of living creatures.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 103%;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 103%;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">To
ascribe understanding to someone is not to hypothesize about her
inner state, and to follow a rule is not to be compelled by an inner
logical machine. But what about the items from group (b) mentioned
above: our moods, emotions and sensations? Here things seem less
clear-cut. For example, we might be willing to accept that the
various sensations and mental processes attendant upon understanding
are concomitant rather than definitional (§152), but it is hard to
see how that can be true of something like <i>pain</i>. For surely
the criterion for the correct use of “I am in pain” is that when
I say it <i>I am in pain</i>? And doesn't the same go for the other
words aligned to group (b): anger, joy, boredom, and so on? Here then
we seem to have found a section of our language which cuts across
Wittgenstein's claims about meaning as use, or at least perhaps where
the use of the word is directly correlated with the object it
represents. </span>
</div>
<div style="line-height: 103%;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 103%;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">This
suggestion is bolstered by an obvious aspect of sensation-objects:
their immediacy. With physical objects it is as if the gap between
speaker and object is too great for language to take hold of it
directly, and so an indirect approach (use) might be the best we can
manage. Our experience of sensation-objects, however, has an
immediacy about it which makes plausible the idea that a word might
reach right out to the thing it names – be pinned to it, so to
speak – so that object and word cannot help but dance in unison.
And now all of a sudden we are surprisingly close to saying that the
sensation-object is the <i>given</i>, and that its name mirrors its
behaviour as a matter of necessity, because they both share the same
underlying <i>form</i>. </span>
</div>
<div style="line-height: 103%;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 103%;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Such
a regression would be awkward enough, but it might also easily become
the thin end of the wedge. For example, I mentioned above that the
category “sensation-language” can include striking experiences of
the outer world, though perhaps not mundane ones. Yet even the
commonest experiences – tying your laces, watching water swirl down
the plughole, the sound of the wind in the trees – might <i>sometimes</i>
be striking. We're probably all familiar with the slightly uncanny
experience of a normally unremarkable event leaping out at us; it
seems to reveal itself as something remarkable after all, something
we'd <i>overlooked</i> in the shrill clamour of everyday life. And
this in turn can lead us on to conclude that <i>every</i> experience
is a sensation, if only we pay close enough attention – and now, of
course, <i>all</i> our talk of the outer world becomes subsumed under
the heading of sensation-language. We are back where we started.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">So
unless Wittgenstein tackles this crucial case head-on, there will
always remain the suspicion that his account of language is holed
beneath the water-line. The idea of a private language is raised in
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">§</span>243 as a theoretical
off-shoot of our actual linguistic practices, but it always seems in
danger of taking over the whole show. Indeed, it is noticeable that
its status shifts to and fro during the discussion. At times the
question is: could there be such a thing? But at other times it is
discussed as if was the language we actually do use – and not just
when talking about straightforward sensations. For after “pain”
the most commonly cited example is “red”, and if colour words are
allowed to be private it's hard to see what's going to be left out of
the picture.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<br /><i style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Pyrrhic
Victories, Pyrrhic Defeats</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Let's
finish by returning to the Materialist/Idealist debate and asking a
basic question: what's really at stake here? It certainly <i>seems</i>
an issue of first-rate importance, but is that actually true? </span>
</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">For
Idealists, confronting the claims of Materialists can be genuinely
disturbing, if only because they come dressed in the robes of
scientific respectability (whether it's through neuroscience,
psychology, genetics or computer science). Standing against them can
seem a daunting prospect, like taking on reality itself. At the same
time, however, the Materialist translation of the inner into purely
physical terms seems self-evidently thin, and perhaps even horrific.
Theirs is a hollowed-out world of twitching neurons and data
manipulation; a world of genes in cells, not grief in hearts. And so
everything that seems to make us significant – thought, feeling and
even consciousness – is transformed into a ghastly parody of
itself.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">The
Materialists likewise believe that something important is at stake.
They march under the strict imperative of Truth – a
post-Enlightenment commitment to following scientific reasoning come
what may. For them, the mythology of the inner is a last outpost of
superstition and magical thinking, and it is a kind of <i>scandal</i>
that in the 21<sup>st</sup> century we still cling to the idea of the
mind as a mysterious conduit between the “divine” and the
secular. This is not to deny the astonishing nature of consciousness
or thought; it is even conceded that the inner represents a great
<i>mystery</i>. But it is a mystery like the composition of the sun
used to be – a practical matter for science to clear up through
theory, experiment and peer review. And although the resulting
post-superstition world might be a less comfortable place, that will
be because we have traded in the cheerful illusions of childhood for
the sterner duties of full-grown adults.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Put
like that, the debate between Idealism and Materialism seems a
struggle for the very soul of humanity. At the same time, however,
it's hard to shake off the sneaking suspicion that there's something
completely bogus about the whole shooting match. For one thing, it
rumbles on interminably, punctuated by occasional claims of a
decisive breakthrough (usually by the Materialists) that quickly turn
out to be another false dawn. This alone suggests that the two sides
are not so much <i>engaging</i> with each other as completely talking
<i>past</i> each other. But more corrosive still is the thought that
the debate is not so much over what we should <i>do</i> as how we
should <i>describe</i> what we do. As such, it is an argument without
genuine consequence, whichever side wins. Let's suppose, for example,
that the Materialists come out on top: we all agree that talk of the
inner is just a form of folk-psychology, more properly replaced by
descriptions of brain-states, input-processing, etc. But what exactly
changes? For sure, we have adopted a new way of <i>talking</i>;
instead of “I feel angry” we now say something like “I estimate
that my brain-state equates to what was previously called 'anger'.”
– But so what? Are we going to stop getting (what was previously
called) angry? <i>Should</i> we? And when we do get “angry” are
the <i>consequences</i> of that “anger” going to change? Surely
not! In which case we have simply swapped our old notation for a new
one that sits more comfortably with the broader prejudices of our
age.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">And
yet, and yet.... The above argument is adapted from a line of thought
that appears several times in Wittgenstein's later writings, perhaps
most witheringly in <i>Zettel</i>, §§413-414:</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-left: 1.25cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">One man is a convinced realist,
another a convinced idealist and teaches his children accordingly. In
such an important matter as the existence or non-existence of the
external world they don't want to teach their children anything
wrong. […] But the idealist will teach his children the word
“chair” after all, for of course he wants to teach them to do
this and that, eg to fetch a chair. Then where will be the difference
between what the idealist-educated children say and the realist ones?
Won't the difference only be one of battle cry?</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">So
far as arguments about the reality of the external world are
concerned, I think this is pretty devastating. For our form of life
there is <i>no such thing</i> as acting upon the conviction that the
external world is an illusion, and so we cannot even <i>try</i> to do
it. But what about arguments about the reality of the <i>internal</i>
world? Do things run on in exactly the same way? Suppose we were
brought up from infancy to believe that, though perhaps unavoidable,
our everyday talk of thoughts and feelings was so much sentimental
bad faith – that in truth we were just machines made of flesh and
blood. Certainly this education would be conceptually incoherent; we
could not in any thorough-going sense live out our lives according to
its precepts. But is there no such
thing as <i>trying</i> to act upon the conviction that human
beings are simply machines? And if that's possible, what do you
suppose might be the outcome? I don't think the answer is at all
clear-cut.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">What
we are discussing here might be put like this: in what sense does
Wittgenstein <i>matter</i>? Does his significance extend beyond the
lecture hall or not? If all he shows is that philosophers are engaged
in a massive academic circle-jerk then so what? Let's just leave them
to it. But if there's something substantial at stake – say, the
potential for conceptual confusion to facilitate a slow, partial
leeching of humanity from our world-view – then obviously his work
has a far deeper significance. </span>
</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">In
this respect Wittgenstein's philosophy can seem ambiguous. On the one
hand we have the “battle cry” argument, which suggests a limit to
the ways in which our lives might genuinely change (and it is on this
ground that Wittgenstein is sometimes labelled a conservative thinker
– a Quietist who seeks to preserve the status quo). Yet the
possibility of change – of language-games quite alien to our own –
abounds in the <i>Investigations</i>. It is a cornerstone of his
attempt to debunk the idea that our current practices reflect an a
priori logical form, and is explicitly pointed out in §23: “new
types of language, new language-games, as we may say, come into
existence, and others become obsolete and get forgotten”. And on a
personal level Wittgenstein clearly thought that life <i>had</i>
changed – for the worse – over the previous hundred years or so
(think of the story about his reaction to the pictures in the
bookshop window). Indeed, he saw his philosophy as a struggle against
this change, against the spirit of his age – a spirit characterised
(as he saw it) by a slide towards superficiality: the worship of
science and mere cleverness, as opposed to a deep appreciation of
life and the retention of a sense of wonder. That doesn't suggest a
man who only wanted to reform the bad habits of academia. Rather, it
suggests someone who believed deeply that chasing after chimeras
didn't always end in the harmless bathos of the idealist's battle
cry. That something <i>important</i> could be lost in the process.
That something important <i>was</i> <i>being</i> lost.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.1cm; margin-top: 0.1cm;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Of
course, there is an alternative account of Wittgenstein's
significance, most clearly put forward by Peter Hacker. According to
<a href="http://info.sjc.ox.ac.uk/scr/hacker/docs/Philosophy%20for%20RIP.pdf" target="_blank">this version</a>, Wittgenstein's work is valuable because it establishes
philosophy as </span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">“a Tribunal
of Reason, before which scientists and mathematicians may be
arraigned for their transgressions”. And this is valuable for all
concerned, since it prevents scientists from wasting their time on
wild goose-chases. I dispute neither the correctness nor the value of
this account, but it seems to miss completely the sense of urgency
and profundity that I, for one, find in Wittgenstein's philosophy.
For me the </span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><i>Philosophical
Investigations</i></span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"> is
unmistakably the work of a man trying with all his might to get us to
see through an illusion, because he believes </span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><i>it
is desperately important that we do so</i></span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">.
Let me put it this way: if the book's only benefit is that it
prevents neuroscientists from giving credence to the engaging
clap-trap of Daniel Dennett, then I would consider the countless
hours I've spent pouring over it to be a horrible waste of time.</span></div>
Philip Cartwrighthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11458571502536123264noreply@blogger.com8tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6701420428167031490.post-55290707347557019472015-04-10T19:50:00.000+01:002015-04-10T19:50:01.062+01:00Rules, Norms and Robinson CrusoeIn lieu of a proper post about understanding and rules (it's coming, it's coming), I've posted some rough notes on my other blog concerning <a href="https://cartwrightphilip.wordpress.com/2015/04/10/remarks-on-rules-norms-and-robinson-crusoe/" target="_blank">rules, norms and the "Robinson Crusoe" debate</a>. I'm not putting them on here as a "proper" post, since they're just me thinking out loud. Still, have a look and see what you think. And, obviously, I'd be grateful for any comments, either here or on the other blog.Philip Cartwrighthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11458571502536123264noreply@blogger.com9tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6701420428167031490.post-90328197332093562712015-04-02T20:08:00.001+01:002015-04-02T20:08:51.087+01:00Why Wittgenstein MattersI hope in due course to say something myself on this topic. In the meantime, however, here's an excellent talk given by my former tutor, Dr Ian Ground, to the Royal Institute of Philosophy last February.<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<iframe width="320" height="266" class="YOUTUBE-iframe-video" data-thumbnail-src="https://i.ytimg.com/vi/KkYRyt5jqsk/0.jpg" src="http://www.youtube.com/embed/KkYRyt5jqsk?feature=player_embedded" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe></div>
<br />
(I am also, by the way, still working on my next post about understanding. Progress is hard and slow, so bear with me.)Philip Cartwrighthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11458571502536123264noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6701420428167031490.post-39152686905900032532015-02-04T09:41:00.001+00:002015-02-04T09:41:31.898+00:00New Wittgenstein BlogAdrian Brockless has been running a monthly Wittgenstein reading group for a while now in London. I've not been to a meeting myself, but they've certainly looked interesting (the last topic was rule following, and they're about to discuss Peter Winch's paper on "an attitude towards a soul"). Adrian has just set up a <a href="http://wittgensteinreadinggroup.blogspot.co.uk/" target="_blank">blog</a> to accompany the group's discussions. No posts on it as yet, but hopefully this will be well worth checking out as it develops.Philip Cartwrighthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11458571502536123264noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6701420428167031490.post-89888226541757952332014-10-20T14:45:00.000+01:002014-10-20T14:45:05.976+01:00Understanding, States and Correctness<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;">This post considers the negative
account of understanding in §§138-242. By “negative account” I
mean Wittgenstein's criticism of understanding as a state which
governs our use of language. It is not, however, a straightforward
description of that criticism as it develops in the </span><i style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;">Investigations</i><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;">.
Instead, I've reordered the arguments in an attempt to bring out
their key features – for the more I consider them the more it seems
to me that Wittgenstein makes the same (or similar) points over and
over again. Or perhaps it would be more accurate to say that the
points he makes about a specific type of state turn out to be
applicable across the board (and this, of course, is not a
coincidence).</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">My next post will outline
Wittgenstein's positive account of understanding – ie, his
description of the role the concept plays in our lives and the
circumstances within which it operates. Hopefully that won't take me
ten months to write.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="Grasping"></a>
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><u>Grasping</u></span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Let's
start with the interlocutor's remark in §138:</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.25cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">But we <i>understand</i> the meaning
of a word when we hear or say it; we grasp the meaning at a stroke,
and what we grasp in this way is surely something different from the
'use' which is extended in time!</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Why
does this represent a challenge to Wittgenstein's claim that the
meaning of a word is it's use in the language (<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§43)?
</span>Well, consider the following exchange between Lee and Jones:</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.25cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Lee: I bought a piccolo today.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.25cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Jones: What does 'piccolo' mean?</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.25cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Lee: This is a piccolo: </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.25cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">[Lee takes a piccolo out of his bag
and shows Jones.]</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">At
once the penny drops. Jones understands the meaning of the word
“piccolo” at a stroke; she has grasped not merely what Lee meant
in his specific remark, but how the word is to be used in a vast
(indeed infinite) range of
possible applications. But if that is so then how can meaning be <i>use</i>?
Jones didn't study the use of the word in order to grasp its meaning
– indeed her understanding seems <i>prior</i> to the use she will
now go on to make of it. We might put it more strongly: how <i>could</i>
a study of use (ie, what has happened in a relatively tiny number of
past occasions) possibly determine how a word will function in an
infinity of potential future cases?</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Such
thoughts can be built upon in a number of ways (as we shall see), but
four points stand out: </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<ol type="i">
<li><div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">The above account presents
understanding as an <i>entity</i> of some kind. As such, it readily
suggests that understanding is a <i>state.</i> Jones was in one
state before she understood, and acquiring the “entity” moved
her into a new state: the state of understanding.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
</li>
<li><div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">The State <i>governs</i> our use of
words. We use them as we do <i>because</i> we're in a particular
state.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
</li>
<li><div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">The state enables us to use a word
<i>correctly</i>. It is because Jones has acquired the entity that
she can now respond to “piccolo” correctly when someone else
uses it, and will also use it correctly herself. So the state must
provide a standard of correctness against which usage can be
assessed. Inevitably, t<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">his raises the
issue of </span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><i>rules</i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">,
since using a word correctly simply </span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><i>is</i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">
using it in accordance with the relevant rule. So what is grasped at
the moment of understanding would seem to be the rule itself (in
some form or other). The state of understanding requires the
possession of, and correcting functioning of, a rule.</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
</li>
<li><div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Achieving understanding seems to
require a mental act of comprehension; the “entity” didn't
merely fall into Jones – she <i>grasped</i> it. She not only saw
the entity, she understood its meaning. She was conscious of the
fact that she could now go on to use the word correctly.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
</li>
</ol>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Taken
together, these points outline a foundational theory of
understanding. But of course we still need to fill in the details:
what sort of state are we talking about? In what sense does it govern
use? And how does it provide a standard of correctness? As we shall
see, the heart of Wittgenstein's objection to this whole approach
lies in an unbearable tension arising out of the answers to these
last two questions.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="Physical States"></a>
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><u>Physical States</u></span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">We'll
consider physical states first, if only because they seem the least
mysterious option on offer. Here we are talking about “a state of
an apparatus” (§149) such that it produces a given output for a
given input. In the case of humans, the apparatus in question is held
to be the brain, but it's worth noting that the theory doesn't rule
out the existence of understanding in inorganic structures such as
computers. For us, however, the process runs as follows: when we hear
a word, the brain receives it as an input (or stimulus) which causes
various neurological reactions (or processing), resulting in an
output (or response). Clearly this account offers an explanation as
to how the state governs use: it is a causal process. But how does it
budget for correctness? Well, the state represents the rule for the
use of the word. The rule is encoded into the brain's neurological
structure just as the rules encoded into an iPhone's circuits allow
Siri to answer our questions. The correct set of rules, properly
encoded, results in the correct response for a particular verbal
stimulus. Obviously our current understanding of the brain is too
coarse to enable us to identify the detailed workings of these rules,
but part of the theory's force lies in the thought that they <i>must</i>
be there, or else understanding would seem to lie outside the realm
of natural laws. It would be not simply mysterious but akin to <i>magic</i>
(cf §158).</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">The
first problem to note with this account is that it means my own
understanding is <i>hidden</i> from me. I have no access to the rule
I need to follow in order to use a word correctly (cf §153). So at
best I can only <i>infer</i> that I understand a word – or we
might say that I <i>interpret</i> my current state to be one of
understanding. Likewise, when I use a word I can only infer that I'm
using it correctly; I interpret its meaning in such-and-such a way.
But from <i>what</i> do I make these inferences? <i>What</i> are my
interpretations based upon? Consider a normal case of interpretation:
I'm presented with the sentence “The cit purred and licked her
paws”. Here I can easily infer that “cit” means “cat”
(perhaps it's a typo). But the situation we're now presented with is
one in which <i>all</i> our words need to be interpreted. So I'm not
just inferring the meaning of “cit”; I'm also inferring the
meaning of “inferring”. (And “meaning”. And “word”. And
“and”.) It is difficult to make <i>any</i> sense of the phrase “I
infer that by 'infer' I mean <i>infer</i>”. Worse still, the
meaning of any interpretation I come up with will itself need to be
interpreted, and so will the interpretation of my interpretation. And
so on.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">In
fact, this same objection holds against the basic idea that the rules
of language are encoded in our brains. Given that we have a language
which is <i>not</i> a code, it's a simple enough job to decode a
sequence like “Gl yv li mlg gl yv”. Likewise, it is because we
have language in uncoded form that we can built coded versions of its
rules into iPhones and PCs. But if all language everywhere is a code
then the process of decoding can never end – and that amounts to
saying that there's no such thing as a code in the first place. And
no such thing as language, either. The concepts of interpretation,
inference and encoding only make sense within a framework where there
are some things which are <i>not</i> interpreted, inferred or
encoded. The former are parasitic upon the latter. If you try to make
them the fundamental basis for language then language itself
collapses in a heap.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">It's
important to realise that the basic problem lies with the need for a
standard of correctness. The physical state hides the rules of
language, but you cannot <i>follow</i> a rule if you don't know what
it is. And while it is possible to act in <i>accordance</i> with a
rule without knowing that it exists, this can only happen within a
broader practice of rule-following. Because the physical state makes
following a rule impossible, it also makes acting in accordance with
a rule impossible. And that, at bottom, is why notions such as
interpretation can get no purchase here; we are attempting to act in
accordance with a rule when there is no such thing as following it.
In such a situation, the very notion of a rule disappears.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">What
this comes down to is that brain processes do not amount to rules.
They may well operate according to causal laws, but there is a
categorical distinction between rules and laws of nature. You don't
need to know the laws of gravity in order to fall at 9.8 metres per
second per second. And there is no such thing as correctly (or
incorrectly) following that law. A causal process might do what we
hoped or disappoint us; it might operate as predicted or might
surprise us. <i>But it cannot make a mistake</i>. Therefore a causal
process cannot provide a standard of correctness for usage, and
therefore it cannot provide a foundational account of understanding.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="Function and Behaviour"></a>
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><u>Function and Behaviour</u></span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">But
it might be objected that we're needlessly over-complicating things.
There's a much simpler way to allow for correctness in relation to
physical states and processes. All that's required is for the outputs
to be properly <i>calibrated</i>
– that is, given the same input, the individual states reliably
produce the same <i>output</i>.
From this point of view it doesn't even matter if the states in
question are completely different; after all, mobile phones can be
constructed in numerous different ways but that doesn't bother us.
It's the <i>function</i> that
counts.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Interestingly,
this approach leaves us in some doubt as to the precise criteria for
specifying understanding. Our starting point was that understanding
is a state; find the state and you've found the thing itself. But
switching the focus towards function muddies the waters. Now it seems
that understanding is a state <i>plus</i>
the output (ie, behaviour). And since the state can take any number
of different forms it seems to be the output which is doing all the
heavy lifting here. The requisite state is merely whichever one
happens to be in place when correctly calibrated outputs are
produced. Doesn't it thereby drop out of the picture so far as
defining understanding is concerned? Can't we say that understanding
is simply correct behaviour? Or is there something important about
the fact that the behaviour is <i>produced</i>
– ie, that it's linked to inputs via the state? Should we take an
inclusive approach and say that understanding is something which
emerges out of the process as a whole, so that the total “system”
includes all the linguistic interactions between people?</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">However,
the real problem with this account is not which part to designate as
the essence of understanding. The <i>whole approach</i>
fails because, again, it cannot provide a standard of correctness. To
say that we can generate a standard of correctness by properly
calibrating outputs simply <i>presupposes</i>
a standard – ie, we're assuming that the meaning of “properly
calibrated” has already been settled. But that's precisely what
we're supposed to be explaining! It's no help to say an output is
right if it accords with everyone else's, because we've yet to
fix what counts as “being in accordance with” in any given case.
Here it's tempting to say that they're in accordance if they're <i>the
same</i> – but this takes us in a circle, because whether two
things count as “the same” depends on whether they are both in
accordance with a particular rule. So we're defining “accords with”
in terms of “the same” and “the same” in terms of “accords
with”!</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">This
brings out the significance of Wittgenstein's remarks on sameness
which are dotted throughout §§138-242 (see §208, §§215-216 and
§§224-227). It is tempting to suppose that the sameness of any two
objects is an intrinsic feature of the world – something we can
simply “read off” by regarding the objects themselves. From this
point of view, a rule would be a </span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><i>description</i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">
of the feature in question, and whether or not it was a correct rule
would depend on how accurately it described the feature. So, for
example, the rule “This </span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">→ </span><span style="color: red;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">█</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">
= 'red'” would successfully correlate the word “red” with red
objects because such objects were intrinsically the same as </span><span style="color: red;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">█</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">.
The sample merely described redness and the rest followed as a matter
of course. But, as we're already seen when discussing <a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.co.uk/2012/04/meaning-is-use-part-2-caveat-and.html">ostensive
definition</a>, this doesn't work as a foundational account because
without a pre-established context the definition achieves nothing at
all (cf §§28-31). In this case, the context is that the box is a
sample of a particular colour and that we already know what counts as
“being the same colour”. In different circumstances the rule
would have had an entirely different effect. Likewise, if someone
buys two copies of the morning paper has he bought two things once or
one thing twice? That is, are we to classify the two papers as “the
same” or “different”? The answer, of course, depends on </span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><i>why</i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">
we're asking; it cannot be divorced from the activity in which the
question arises. What a rule achieves depends on the context in which
it is applied; it is woven into the way we live, the way we interact
with things (with colours, for example). It does not function as a
description.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">But
the function/behaviour approach implicitly assumes that rules
describe “sameness” as an intrinsic feature of the world, and
therefore, <i>in themselves</i>, provide a context-independent
standard of correctness. All you need is the rule; the rest takes
care of itself. But if you do not specify in advance what is to count
as “being the same” (ie, “being in accordance with”) then <i>any</i>
response can be classified as “the same” – or “different” –
according to some formulation or other. It's easy to overlook this
point because the examples of “sameness” used are extremely
typical, and so we readily imagine a context in which they would be
correct. But it is therefore <i>we</i> who are providing the standard
of correctness. And this brings us back to our earlier point: far
from showing how the input/process/output model gives rise to
correctness, it simply presupposes what it is claiming to explain.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="Mental States"></a>
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><u>Mental States</u></span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Since the mechanistic causality of
physical states presents an insurmountable difficulty, might not
mental states prove more accommodating? Certainly there is something
appealing about this idea. The mental realm offers something less
rigid, something <i>stranger</i> – it is (we suppose) a nebulous
realm whose workings we don't quite understand and yet seem capable
of near miraculous results. This connects with the thought that, at
best, a mechanical system can merely manipulate dead signs; you need
the mind to breath <i>life</i> into the process and turn it into
meaningful language (cf, the <i>Blue Book</i>, p3-4). And, in a way,
such a transformation simply represents the move from mere causal
“happenings” to correct or incorrect <i>use</i>. For unless our
use of words can be right or wrong they cannot be meaningful –
indeed, they do not even count as <i>words</i>. They are just bleats
or scratches on a page.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Of course, in proposing mental states
as a way forward we must be careful to avoid the difficulties we've
already encountered. So, for example, such states must not operate in
a causal or quasi-causal manner; a mental mechanism is no more
helpful than a physical one. Likewise, a hidden state (or process)
will be no use to us; that would simply re-introduce the absurdity of
language as constant interpretation. Yet we still need to account for
the way in which the state governs behaviour and produces a standard
of correctness against which such behaviour can be judged.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Taken together, these requirements
point us towards the linked notions of <i>guidance</i> (as opposed to
causation) and <i>characteristic experiences</i> (as opposed to
hidden processes). This picture can be fleshed out in a number of
ways, but roughly speaking it hinges on the idea that we are directly
aware of our understanding; we <i>feel</i> it. And this feeling
guides us in our use of words. It <i>suggests</i> one use rather than
another.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">As
usual, the devil is in the details. For example, is the feeling we
get understanding <i>itself</i>?
– in which case, we only understand a word while we're experiencing
that feeling, which seems absurd. Or is it merely an <i>indication</i>
that we understand? – in which case our actual understanding again
seems hidden from us. Moreover, is there even such a thing as a
characteristic experience of understanding? Do you have a
characteristic experience every single time you hear the word “dog”
or “the”? </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Wittgenstein
spends a considerable amount of time undermining the plausibility of
the whole account, but it seems to me that it falls on two basic
points he makes regarding correctness. First of all, <i>feeling</i>
you understand isn't the same as understanding. Being sure you're
right isn't the same as being right. <i>Thinking</i> you're following
a rule isn't the same as following it (§202). If it was then there
would be no way of settling disputes over rules, and therefore no
standard of correctness for their use. Secondly, insofar as the
experience <i>guides</i> me, it again fails to provide a standard of
correctness, because “if it can guide me right, it can also guide
me wrong” (§213). Guidance is not enough; I still need a means of
evaluating it. And, of course, that cannot take the form of <i>further</i>
guidance, because then I would need a means of evaluating the
guidance about the guidance. </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">We've
ended up back at the familiar regress, and this should alert us to
the fact that “guidance” here is playing a similar role to
inference and interpretation in earlier accounts. Guidance <i>suggests</i>
an application of a rule, and that is akin to being offered an
interpretation. But (we might object) can't guidance <i>tell</i> us
what to do? Obviously it can, but then it's either up to us whether
we do as we're told or we have no choice in the matter. In the former
case, we need a standard of correctness by which to decide if it is
<i>right</i> to obey. In the latter case, there's no question of a
standard because we're again in a rigidly determined system. Our
discussion repeatedly brings us back to this dilemma: either the
state governs use in a rigid way, in which case there cannot be right
or wrong usage; or else it leaves the final decision up to us, in
which case we have no firm basis for a decision since that's
precisely what the state is supposed to be providing.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="Intention"></a>
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><u>Intention</u></span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">But
doesn't this introduce the role of the mental in the wrong way?
Perhaps all this talk of characteristic experiences is besides the
point. After all, item (iv) on our list spoke of mental <i>acts</i>
rather than a passive awareness of sensations – isn't that what we
need to add in order to provide a standard of correctness? This is
what the interlocutor is getting at in §186 when he says, “The
right step is the one that is in accordance with the order – as it
was <i>meant</i>.” And it's a suggestion that brings us back to the
difference between dead signs and living language. <span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">When
I say something I don't just respond to a stimulus like a bell
ringing at the push of a button; I talk </span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><i>about</i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">
things and </span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><i>I mean what I
say</i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">. And this meaning is
(it seems) a conscious act which, </span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><i>inter
alia</i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">, specifies how you
should respond to my words. If you do so correctly (ie, as I meant
it) then you've understood. Understanding, therefore, is the mental
act of grasping the intention behind the word. </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Hence
(it seems) it is the mental act of meaning which supplies a standard
of correctness and transforms dead signs into living language. </span><span style="font-size: small;">But
what do we actually mean here by “mental act”? What sort of act
are we talking about? The answer seems to be something like </span><span style="font-size: small;"><i>picturing</i></span><span style="font-size: small;">
to ourselves what we mean by our words. As Wittgenstein (discussing
“red”) rather scathingly puts it, “It is as if, when I uttered
the word, I cast a sidelong glance at my own colour impression, as it
were, in order to say to myself: I know all right what I mean by the
word” (§274).</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">The most obvious
objection to this account is that it doesn't seem to fit the facts.
In the flow of a normal conversation we're not aware of performing
acts of meaning relating to individual words or even groups of words.
Perhaps (we might say) the acts go by too quickly to be noticed, or
maybe they're performed subconsciously. But this just brings us back
(yet again) to the problem of hidden criteria. If meaning is provided
by associating a word with a sample and I'm not aware of making this
association then how do I know what I mean by my words? The sample is
supposed to be the rule that I follow, but, as we've seen, I cannot
follow a rule of which I am unaware.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Even setting aside the
issue of hiddenness, however, could the mental act achieve what we
require of it? When the interlocutor introduces the subject of
intention in §186, Wittgenstein immediately brushes it aside:</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.25cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">But that is just what is
in question: what, at any stage, does follow from that sentence. Or,
again, what at any stage we are to call “being in accordance”
with it.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">And consider in this
context §239:</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.25cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">How is he to know what
colour he is to pick out when he hears “red”? – Quite simple:
he is to take the colour whose image occurs to him when he hears the
word. – But how is he to know which colour it is 'whose image
occurs to him'? Is a further criterion needed for that?</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">In other words, simply
associating a word with a mental sample (or rule) isn't enough – it
has to be the <i>correct</i> sample. Yet again, the process we
posited in order to inject correctness into language itself requires
a prior standard in order to make it work. </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Let's pause a moment and
consider the act of intending a bit more closely. I said it was a
kind of picturing, but what might that involve? Here are three
suggestions:</span></div>
<ol type="i">
<li><div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">I picture the object I
mean by the word.</span></div>
</li>
<li><div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">I picture the use to
which the word should be put.</span></div>
</li>
<li><div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">I picture both the
object and its use as complementary parts of a whole.</span></div>
</li>
</ol>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">How
might the act described in (i) work? It seems to be a case of
projecting the pictured object as a sample. If the picture is grasped
by the hearer, she will use it to identify the appropriate objects in
the world. But this just takes us back to where we were regarding the
calibration of outputs. Which objects count as the appropriate ones?
We are again trying to use a rule as a description, and so its status
as a standard of correctness is either missing or assumed. Options
(ii) and (iii) seek to rectify things by picturing the rule's
application (it should be borne in mind that the “picture” need
not be a literal one). But this amounts to providing a second rule
for the application of the first – so the question now arises as to
the application of the new rule. The regress has reappeared. (We are,
in fact, right back in the difficulty described in §§139-141 and
§146. See <a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.co.uk/2013/10/understanding-part-1-pictures-138-142.html">Understanding
Part 1: Pictures</a> for more on this.) Moreover, these aren't just
problems for the person hearing the words; they apply to the speaker
as well. Neither party has a standard of correctness and so neither
can tell the meaning of what's said. (§504: “But if someone says,
'How am I to know what he means – I see only his signs?', then I
say, 'How is </span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><i>he</i></span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">
to know what he means, he too has only his signs?'”)</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Still, it might be
objected that we're not doing justice to the mental act. <i>Of course</i>
it's not just about inwardly looking at a sign while uttering a word.
How could anyone think that <i>that</i> would be enough? It's about
<i>meaning</i> that the picture (or sample or rule) ought to be
applied in a particular way. So this “meaning” is something that
happens <i>alongside</i> paying attention to the picture. But what is
this something extra? Wittgenstein brings out the strangeness of the
claim in §332: “Utter a sentence, and think it; utter it with
understanding. – And now don't utter it, and just do what you
accompanied it with when you uttered it with understanding!” And
again in §510: “Try to do the following: <i>say</i> 'It's cold
here', and <i>mean</i> 'It's warm here'. Can you do it? – And what
are you doing as you do it? And is there only one way of doing it?”
The point, of course, is that whatever we end up trying is utterly
unlike anything we'd be prepared to call “an act of meaning”. The
very notion of meaning or intending as a substantive act begins to
appear hollow.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">At this point we are
flirting with arguments which are given their fullest expression in
the sections on private language (§§243-315), so I'm reluctant to
delve into too much detail in this post. But I hope I've said enough
at least to indicate how the interlocutor's account of intention
struggles to fulfil its mission.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="Logical Compulsion"></a>
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><u>Logical Compulsion</u></span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Maybe,
however, we're still looking at the mind in the wrong way. We've been
talking about psychological laws and processes, and these are
inevitably analogous to physical ones – so it's only to be expected
that the same problems would emerge in both accounts. But isn't the
important thing about the mind the fact that it is the medium by
which we apprehend the underlying <i>logic</i> of things? We need a
non-causal process which nonetheless does more than simply guide us;
doesn't the notion of <i>logical compulsion</i> provide us with just
this feature? For the force of logic is imperative yet not causal.
Consider a typical logical statement such as “-(P˄-P)”. You
cannot have both “P” and “not-P” at the same time. We are
(somehow) forced to acknowledge the statement's truth – we cannot
help but see that it is <i>correct</i>, that it <i>must be</i>
correct. And yet this is not a matter of causation; if anything, the
compulsion runs deeper than that. It is not founded upon the
contingent laws of nature but upon the necessary structure of the
world. It provides the framework within which such contingent laws
can exist.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Tracing
through the implications of this for language can take many forms,
but the basic idea is that somehow logic locks words into a
descriptive relationship with the world. Let's return for a moment to
the distinction between language and dead signs. Seeing how the
latter can become the former means answering a simple question: how
do signs work? How is it that scratches on a page or emitted sounds
actually mean something? How is it that they describe the world?
Well, in the case of the <i>Tractatus</i>, it's a matter of logical
structure. Names (which correspond to simples) are combined in a way
that matches the logical structure of what they depict. They mirror
the essence of a possible state of affairs. It is vital here that
what is mirrored is a <i>logical</i> structure. That is what gives
the connection its peculiar depth. Logic, we might say, acts as a
kind of force which binds the two together in a depicting/depicted
relationship. It adds an imperative quality to what otherwise would
merely be a contingent likeness. So given that a particular mark or
sound is being used as a sign, you <i>must see</i> that it represents
such-and-such a state of affairs. Of course, this account doesn't
<i>explain</i> anything. As an answer to “How do signs depict?”
it amounts to replying “They just <i>do</i>”. And the <i>Tractatus</i>,
at least, is audaciously upfront about this: you <i>cannot</i> say
how the sign depicts. It <i>shows</i> that it does so by exhibiting
the requisite logical form. This might seem unsatisfactory, but it
<i>must</i> be the case because (the argument goes) it is a condition
of the possibility of language itself.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">The
problems with this account are frustratingly familiar. First, it
presents us with a sign which is a description of a possible state of
affairs and yet which has the imperative quality of a rule. As such,
it implicitly rests upon the idea of intrinsic sameness, and so it
presupposes its standard of correctness. It says, in effect, that
because the sign and state of affairs share a structure we cannot
help but see that they're the same. But to say they share a structure
is just another way of saying they're the same, and “they're the
same because they're the same” says nothing. We still need to know
what counts as “sharing a structure”. </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">It
might be objected here that we've overlooked the sublime nature of
logic; it is precisely because we're dealing with a logical force
rather than an empirical one that this problem doesn't arise. Logic
just <i>is</i> the realm in which the notion of intrinsic sameness
holds good. Aside from the fact that this makes logic look
uncomfortably like magic, it runs headlong into our other perennial
problem: if logic creates an unbreakable bond between the sign and
what it signifies then how is a <i>mistake</i> possible? Yet again we
have produced an account of language which is too rigid to allow for
the notion of correctness. And, as before, if we attempt to soften
things – by an appeal to the guiding inner voice of “intuition”,
for example – then we're left without a foundation for our
judgements. Each guiding voice needs another to underwrite its
advice.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">We
can express this as a problem arising from the fact that we're
treating the sign as both a description and a rule. If you treat a
description as a rule then its connection with what it describes is
too rigid to allow for mistakes. But if you treat a rule as a
description then it loses its imperative force and always stands in
need of something further to justify its function. Rules and
descriptions are conceptually distinct; running them together
produces only chaos.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="Conclusion"></a>
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><u>Conclusion</u></span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">We have traced the idea
of understanding as a state through various permutations, and each
time we've been confronted by a similar set of difficulties, all of
which centre upon the need to account for correctness. This suggests
that the problem does not stem from choosing
the wrong type of state, or misrepresenting its workings. It is far
more fundamental than that. So where have we gone wrong?</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Well,
in a sense we have been misled by the very question we're trying to
answer, <i>viz</i>:
what is understanding? It's one of those questions that, according to
Wittgenstein, produces in us a mental cramp. “We feel that we can't
point to anything in reply to them and yet ought to point to
something” (<i>Blue
Book</i>, p1). He then
remarks “We are up against one of the greatest sources of
philosophical bewilderment: a substantive makes us look for a thing
that corresponds to it”. And that's precisely our position
regarding understanding; a form of expression (“we grasp the
meaning at a stroke”) tempted us into treating it as a kind of
entity. Of course, we weren't sure what type of entity we were
dealing with, so we began to produce various hypotheses concerning
its nature: it must be a physical state, or a functional state, a
mental state, and so on. But the one constant amongst all this was
that we were investigating a <i>thing</i>,
and that by itself locked us into a particular way of considering it.
Understanding, whatever its precise form, was a discrete entity which
could be considered in isolation from its surroundings. It was
context-independent. And insofar as it exhibited influence over other
things, such as behaviour, it would do so in what was essentially a
rigid, mechanical relationship.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">And because understanding
is bound up with grasping and following rules, those rules were
themselves treated as things – mechanistic structures processing
inputs in the brain or the mind or a platonic realm of logical
compulsion. At the same time, however, these rules were assumed to
function as <i>descriptions</i>, so that the computation was a matter
of comparing a rule with a context-independent reality (either the
reality of things being “thus and so” or the reality of the
output which commonly followed from the relevant input). This act of
comparison could only get off the ground if it was assumed that
“sameness” or “being in accord with” was an intrinsic feature
of the world, so that a standard of correctness was automatically
provided along with the rule itself. That is, given a particular
rule, it could not <i>possibly</i> be seen as anything other than a
picture of such-and-such, and so there could be no doubt as to
whether it was being correctly applied on any specific occasion. </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Unravelling this illusion
begins at §28 with the remark that “an ostensive definition can be
variously interpreted in <i>any</i> case”. The ramifications of
this simple observation echo throughout the <i>Investigations</i> in
a variety of associated contexts; see, for example, §§85-87, §139,
§§162-164 and §186. But the underlying point remains constant: a
rule (or sample or picture) does not come with its method of
application built into it. Imagining that it does so amounts to
sublimating the concept; it turns the rule into something occult and
utterly mysterious. And once this illusion is dispelled the whole
mythology which has been built on top of it collapses. A rule cannot
function as a description and therefore cannot state a
context-independent fact (indeed, there <i>are</i> no
context-independent facts). A rule is not itself a thing, so
understanding the meaning of a word cannot be a matter of possessing
this thing. Therefore understanding cannot be a state, for that was
just another way of saying that understanding meant possessing (in
some form or other) a rule. This is why normative explanations cannot
be reduced to causes or rigid processes; they represent categorically
different types of explanation, and the attempt to run them together
only yields confusion (it's an example of what Wittgenstein calls
“the crossing of different pictures” in §191).</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">And that, in turn, is why
the switch from causation to something less rigid (guidance,
interpretation, inference, etc) gets us nowhere. It introduces an
alien type of explanation into the causal account. At the same time,
it strips these new notions from their customary framework where they
function alongside other, more direct practices. But it is only
within this wider framework that they make sense; guidance is
grounded in practices which are not themselves guidance, and the same
goes for interpretation and inference (cf §1: “Explanations come
to an end somewhere”). When we illicitly import them into the
causal account, we expect them to provide a foundation for
understanding, and this is precisely what they cannot do. Cut free
from their own foundations they produce a regress whereby meaning
itself vanishes into thin air: each interpretation requires a further
interpretation and <i>any</i> response can be brought into accord
with any rule according to some interpretation or other. In this
situation, language collapses and with it go even our most basic
concepts.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">All this amounts to a
damning indictment of the idea that we can found our concepts in a
context-free description of reality – that we can start with “brute
facts” about the world and show how features such as
“understanding”, “knowing” and “meaning” arise out of
them. (Think of the <i>Tractatus</i>: the facts are just there, and
the philosopher's job is to explain how language reflects them.) The
temptation to take this approach is built into the initial question:
What is understanding? It doesn't express puzzlement about this or
that <i>aspect</i> of understanding; it is not a question which
arises out of a concrete difficulty. So it is unlike (eg) “What are
the physical processes which underpin understanding?”. It is a
question without a context and therefore invites a context-free
answer. It is an example of the “engine idling” (§132), and the
response it tempts us to make doesn't just fail to provide a
convincing answer; nor does it merely destroy the concept it is
trying to explain; it makes concepts <i>themselves</i> impossible –
including the concept of brute facts. It is a response which brings
itself into disrepute.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">The context-free question
is, we might say, a paradigmatically <i>philosophical</i> question.
If, therefore, there's no legitimate way of answering it, that
amounts to saying there's no such thing as philosophy itself. For
Wittgenstein, however, the correct response is to describe the
various contexts in which the relevant concept operates – the
complex role it plays in our lives. So the answer is neither
context-free nor an attempt to produce a single description covering
all possible circumstances. And it is this approach which forms the
basis of his positive account of understanding.</span></div>
<br />
<div class="western" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
</div>
Philip Cartwrighthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11458571502536123264noreply@blogger.com19tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6701420428167031490.post-84727856355199647402014-08-18T13:16:00.001+01:002014-08-18T13:16:40.524+01:00Yet Another Bloody UpdateThe first thing to report is that I'm now properly back on line, so that should make working on the blog a bit more straightforward. Unfortunately, that doesn't help with my main problem: how to condense (or finish) the mass of notes and half-written blog posts I have on understanding and rule-following. I'm finding that a formidable task, to be honest; at the last count I had nine half-written posts amounting to around 27,000 words in total.<br />
<br />
Well, I shall just have to knuckle down and get on with it. To quote Goethe, "Don't let the best be the enemy of the good".Philip Cartwrighthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11458571502536123264noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6701420428167031490.post-1681852576782557502014-04-15T15:16:00.003+01:002014-04-15T15:16:51.254+01:00Update
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">Yet another apology for my lengthy silence. Things have
become a bit difficult recently (in various ways), and it’s hindered my
progress with the blog.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">A second reason, however, has a more philosophical stamp to
it. The more I considered it, the more dissatisfied I became with dividing up §§138-184
and §§185-242 under the respective headings of “Understanding” and “Rule-Following”.
True, that’s a fairly standard division (Hacker and Fogelin both use it, though
McGinn doesn’t), but I don’t think it makes much sense. For a start, the
so-called Understanding section is at least as much about knowing, meaning and
rules as it is about understanding. Perhaps more importantly, however, I think
the rule-following section is quite clearly a continuation of – and culmination
of – the discussion begun at §138. There, the idea of understanding as an “inner
Something” (a picture, formula, rule, process or whatever) leads to the
question of how it ensures correct usage. This in turn raises the suggestion
that the picture (etc) “forces a particular application on us” (§140). In the
same section, Wittgenstein wonders about the nature of this compulsion: is it
psychological or logical? (I’m probably overstepping the mark here, but I’m
tempted to say this ROUGHLY equates to “Empirical or Rational”.) I seems to me
that (again, roughly speaking) §§141-184 investigate psychological compulsion,
while §§185-242 deal with the logical side of things.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">Moreover, it is in this latter section that the crucial role
of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">circumstances</i> (raised in §154) is
given its fullest treatment in the passages concerning customs and techniques.
Finally, the discussion terminates with some startling and difficult comments
that look back to (but also build upon) §142.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">That, at any rate, is my current thinking on the structure
of §§138-242. I’m still mulling over the best way to break things down into
easily digestible chunks (there’s way too much going on to be covered in one or
two posts), but hopefully I’ll have something worth putting up before too long
(and if that sounds annoyingly vague…).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
Philip Cartwrighthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11458571502536123264noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6701420428167031490.post-13260722702495386062013-12-15T16:19:00.000+00:002013-12-15T16:20:07.119+00:00Understanding: Discussion Summary<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;">§§138-184
form a complex, interlocking series of remarks. Sometimes they seem
to repeat themselves and and sometimes they go off on curious
tangents. Wittgenstein wrote in his preface that “The same or
almost the same points were always being approached afresh from
different directions” and this is certainly a prime example.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">It
would be a mistake, however, to think that the discussion is
presented this way simply because Wittgenstein wasn't up to the task
of moulding it into a more conventional form. Rather, the
presentation is bound up with the idea of philosophy as <a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.co.uk/2011/10/therapy.html">therapy</a>.
It attempts to reflect the experience of being in the grip of a
particular way of looking at things. Our thoughts keep coming back to
the same familiar notions – or, rather, those same notions keep
reappearing in subtly altered forms. They cannot be despatched at a
stroke; it requires patient work on the part of both the author and
the reader.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">At
the same time, there's no doubt that it's easy to get lost in the
maze of remarks that Wittgenstein presents us with. So I thought it
might be helpful to provide a rough overview (which I actually wrote
for my own benefit) to act as a guide when things get difficult.
Obviously these notes aren't intended as a substitute for the text
itself. They do not stand alone. Although here and there I offer some
supporting arguments (usually in square brackets), my main aim is to
highlight the flow of Wittgenstein's discussion and the connections
between the various parts. Hopefully more detailed posts will follow
in due course.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">I
have tried to keep things brief but I must admit it's turned into a
bit of a monster. So in case reading it on the blog itself is
tiresome I've prepared a <a href="https://skydrive.live.com/view.aspx?cid=296DF01EC1B2B719&resid=296DF01EC1B2B719%21273&app=WordPdf&wdo=1" target="_blank">PDF version</a> without all this introductory
waffle.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">The
discussion can be divided into four parts:</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<ol>
<li><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><u><b>§§138-150</b></u>.
This starts with the seeming clash between understanding as
something grasped in an instant and meaning as something explained
through use. It considers (and rejects) the claim that understanding
amounts to having an “inner Something”. The following candidates
are rejected: a mental picture; a mental state; a disposition. It
concludes that “meaning” (and hence “understanding”) is more
akin to having an ability.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
</li>
<li><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><u><b>§§151-155</b></u></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">.
This considers a concrete case of “grasping in an instant” (“now
I know”) which seems to go against the link to ability in §150.
Again, it considers and rejects the claim that understanding
consists of an inner Something. Specifically, it argues against
understanding as a characteristic experience or an inner (mental or
physical) mechanism. It concludes that understanding is logically
(grammatically) bound up with the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><i>circumstances</i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">
in which it takes place.</span></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
</li>
<li><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><u><b>§§156-178</b></u>.
To clarify this point, the case of “reading” is considered. As
with understanding, the notion of reading as an inner experience or
process is rejected. This time, however, the process is seen from
the point of view of “deriving” or “being guided”, and the
experience of reading is considered as an experience of this process
taking place. But it is suggested that the pertinent difference
between reading and (eg) pretending lies in the different
circumstances of the two cases.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
</li>
<li><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><u><b>§§179-184</b></u>.
The way in which circumstances enter into the concept of
understanding is clarified. The nature of “now I know” is
identified as a kind of signal rather than a report or description
of an inner experience or state.</span></div>
</li>
</ol>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Now
let's attempt a more detailed summary.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><u><b>1.
§§138-150. First Run-Through</b></u></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§138
points out that when we hear a familiar word we understand it in an
instant. This seems to clash with idea of meaning as something
established by <a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.co.uk/2011/10/meaning-is-use-part-i-argument.html"><i>use</i></a>,
which is spread out over time. A number of questions are generated as
a result:</span></div>
<ul>
<li><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">What
exactly is grasped when we understand a word in an instant?</span></div>
</li>
<li><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">How
does what is grasped relate to use? How can it fit or fail to fit
with use?</span></div>
</li>
<li><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">How
can we grasp the <i>whole</i> use of a word in an instant?</span></div>
</li>
<li><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">How
can observed use help us in novel situations – ie, how is it that
we understand a word even when it's used in a sentence we've never
encountered before?</span></div>
</li>
</ul>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Note
how the mere idea of “grasping in an instant” suggests that what
we need to understand is something “inner”. Again and again
during the discussion observations about the public <i>criteria</i>
for using the word “understanding” will be countered by
objections relating to the <i>first-person experience</i> of
understanding. One of Wittgenstein's main concerns is to clarify the
place of such experiences in relation to the concept of
understanding. He will <i>not</i> claim that they're of no importance
(much less that they don't exist), but that we tend to misunderstand
their role. Achieving a proper understanding, however, doesn't
involve discovering a correct <i>theory</i>; what we need is to
remind ourselves of the complex role understanding plays in our
lives.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><i>§§139-142:
Pictures</i></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">What
is grasped when we understand a word in an instant? The first theory
considered is that we get a <i>mental <a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.co.uk/2013/10/understanding-part-1-pictures-138-142.html">picture</a></i>.
If we have a picture of a cube and we pick out an actual cube then
what is grasped fits the use. If we pick out (eg) a triangular prism
then it doesn't.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">But
who is to say that picking out a triangular prism isn't a correct
application of the picture? A picture <i>by itself</i> cannot provide
a standard for its correct use. The same picture might be applied in
two different ways, and we would say that it had a different meaning
on each occasion. So the criterion for understanding is still the use
rather than the picture itself.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">[Note
the link between this point, the discussion of <a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.co.uk/2012/04/meaning-is-use-part-2-caveat-and.html">ostensive
definition</a> (§§28-36), the discussion of deriving (§§163-164),
and the discussion of “+2” in the rule-following argument
(§§185-190). In fact, the discussion of ostensive definition
foreshadows many of the points Wittgenstein makes about
understanding. I'll group them together as the “anything goes”
argument. I'm not saying they're the <i>same</i> argument each time,
but they do seem connected. Further consideration might be
rewarding.]</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">We're
tempted to say that the picture <i>forces</i> an application upon us,
but what this boils down to is that when confronted with a picture we
often <i>expect</i> it to be used in a certain way – other possible
applications do not occur to us. So “the picture fits the use”
means “the use was the one we expected”.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Does
all this mean there's no such thing as an application occurring to
someone in an instant? No. It will often make sense to say such a
thing. But we need to clarify the role of a statement such as “the
application came before my mind”. This will happen shortly.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><i>§§143-150:
States, Dispositions, Abilities</i></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">As
a prelude, however, Wittgenstein switches to a <a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.co.uk/2011/09/wittgensteins-new-philosophy-no-theory.html"><i>description</i></a>
of teaching someone the decimal series of numbers. It outlines
certain broad, public criteria for saying that the pupil understands.
It also emphasises (a) that at any stage the pupil's ability to learn
may break down, and (b) that the type of instruction given will
depend on the type of mistake the pupil makes. The point of this is
to undermine the idea that getting the pupil to understand involves
giving her a specific inner Something (a picture or formula, etc) the
possession of which will be the source of correct performance.
Rather, what the pupil is “given” depends on what she needs in
order to perform correctly – and it's possible that there is
<i>nothing</i> we can give her (ie, no course of instruction) that
will achieve this. </span>
</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Note
also that the pupil's coming to understand is drawn out over time and
there is no precise moment when we might say “now she knows”.
There is no such thing here as “grasping in an instant”.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">At
§146 we get an important objection: applying understanding is not
understanding itself. Understanding is the <i>source</i> of correct
performance. Or, to put it another way, correct performance is
<i>derived</i> from the source.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">This
is a variation on the “inner Something” idea; behind it lurks the
notion that the “source” is a <i>mental state</i> – one in
which a formula (or other method of application) occurs to the person
who understands.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Wittgenstein
makes two objections:</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<ol type="a">
<li><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">A
formula has the same problem as a picture. It does not come with its
method of application built-in.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
</li>
<li><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Understanding
a word is not best categorised as a mental state. Mental states
(such as feeling anxious or euphoric) have specific duration and
varying degrees of intensity. But I understand a word whether or not
I'm thinking about it. My understanding isn't interrupted when I'm
distracted by something, and so on.</span></div>
</li>
</ol>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Objection
(b) prompts a revised version of the claim (§149): understanding is
a state of an <i>apparatus</i> of the mind (or brain). (Wittgenstein
sometimes calls this a <i>disposition</i>.) So, just as a pocket
calculator can give us the answer to a sum because of its structure
(ie, independent of this or that instance of calculating the answer),
so I can be said to know a word because the structure for correct
performance is in place even if I'm not currently using it.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Wittgenstein
counters by pointing out that this gives us two separate criteria for
saying someone understands: (i) ascertaining the structure, and (ii)
observing performance. He doesn't here elaborate on the implications
of this situation; they will emerge as the discussion continues (I'll
call this the “two criteria” objection). </span>
</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Instead
(§150), we get a summary of sorts: the grammar of the word “know”
is related to “able to”, but also to “understand”. I <i>think</i>
this is emphasising a logical (grammatical) connection between
meaning/understanding and performance. I also think it needs
considering in conjunction with §155. But it all needs careful
unpacking.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><u><b>2.
§§151-155: “Now I know!”</b></u></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Wittgenstein
now switches back to instantaneous grasping when he considers the
significance of phrases such as “now I know” or “now I
understand”. And this marks the start of his attempt to clarify the
idea of an application coming before one's mind, which he mentioned
in §141. </span>
</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">[Why
did he first discuss learning the series of decimal numbers
(§§143-150)? I think because that process is part of the general
scene-setting (the <i>circumstances</i>) without which “Eureka
moments” don't make sense. (Before you can even <i>try</i> to
continue a number series you have to learn to count.) Compare this
with ostensive definition. Viewed in isolation ostensive definition
seemed to do something both fundamental and mysterious: provide an
unmistakable super-bond between word and object. But its function was
only seen aright when we reminded ourselves that actually it took
place within a broader linguistic context. I think Wittgenstein is
saying something similar about instantaneous grasping: if you
overlook the broad context in which it actually takes place then it
can seem to provide the <i>essence</i> of understanding and perform a
truly mysterious function. The mystery is dissolved precisely by
reminding ourselves of that broader context.]</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Wittgenstein
first points out that there are various things that might go on in
someone who suddenly understands. This mitigates against the idea
that understanding is a characteristic experience. But worse still,
any of those experiences might occur and the pupil might still be
unable to continue the series. So the experiences are not the
“essence” of understanding; they are concomitant processes.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">And
now, just as when the notion of understanding as a mental state fell
to pieces, we're tempted to posit a <i>hidden</i> process that lies
behind what we actually experience. (Note how we've moved here from
description to theory.) But if the process is hidden then how do I
know that I actually understand? “How can the process of
understanding have been hidden, given that I said 'Now I understand'
because I <i>did</i> understand?” (§153). [This links back to the
“two criteria” situation in §149.] If understanding is a state
of an apparatus then how can I say I understand when (a) I don't know
what that state actually is, and (b) whatever it is, I don't know
whether it obtains?</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Against
this it is objected (§154) that there <i>must</i> be a state (or
process). For if (eg) a formula occurring to me is not enough to
provide understanding then something else must be necessary, and what
could that something else be if not a hidden process or state?</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Here
we have reached an impasse. We seem forced to accept a theory despite
the fact that it makes things worse (cf §112). This is a radical
breakdown, and Wittgenstein's response amounts to a rejection of the
whole approach that brought it about. Certainly something else is
needed, he says, but not a state or process or disposition or
structure or any type of inner <i>thing</i>. Instead we need to
remind ourselves of the <i>circumstances</i> that warrant someone's
saying “now I know” when the formula occurs to her.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><u><b>3.
§§156-178: Reading</b></u></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">To
make this clearer, he introduces the analogous topic of <i>reading</i>.
As with understanding, reading is a concept that tempts us to think
its essential characteristic must be something inner. On the one
hand, there is surely something <i>computational</i> about reading –
we <i>derive</i> our words from the text – and this derivation is a
process that takes place in the mind, or perhaps in the brain. On the
other hand, reading is surely also a distinctive <i>experience</i>;
just compare actual reading with pretending to read! These two
characteristics might seem at odds with one another, but aren't they
really different aspects of the same phenomenon? That is to say,
isn't the experience of reading precisely the experience of the
computational process taking place?</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Here,
then, we're once again confronted by the two notions that have dogged
us throughout our investigation: process and first-person experience.
And in the context of reading they seem to stand out even more
compellingly than before. Accordingly, Wittgenstein's treatment of
them is both richer and more probing in this part of the discussion.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><i>§§156-158:
Experiences and Mechanisms</i></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">As
with §§143-145, we start with a (brief) <i>description</i> of the
circumstances surrounding reading: learning to read, various criteria
for saying someone is reading, the difference between a beginner and
a fluent reader, etc.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">This
quickly prompts both the idea that reading “is a distinctive
conscious activity” (§156e) and that some kind of mechanism must
be at work (§156g). Against both, Wittgenstein observes that it
makes no sense to talk about the first word a beginner reads (note
the connection with §145b). The point here is that if reading is
either a particular experience or the state of a mechanism then it
<i>ought</i> to make sense to ask “what was the first word he
read?” Concentrating on the notion of mechanism, Wittgenstein draws
a highly significant distinction between our concepts in relation to
<i>machines</i> and the way we apply them to <i>living beings –
</i>even where the living being is
used as a “reading machine”.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Against
this it is objected (§158) that the different treatment merely stems
from our comparative ignorance of the workings of the brain.
Wittgenstein's response is to underline the claim's theoretical
nature (a point already made at §146g), and to further suggest that
it is <i>a priori</i>:
whatever the evidence (or lack of it), things <i>must</i>
come down to a mechanistic explanation. </span>
</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">[What
is he getting at here? I think §158 is an enigmatic, troubling
section. It seems to come alarmingly close to suggesting that our
belief in causality as a universal principle is a kind of
metaphysical superstition (cf <i>Zettel</i>,
§609). It certainly requires careful, detailed analysis. For the
moment, however, I'll offer a provisional, “middle of the road”
gloss: “Why do you say things <i>must</i>
come down to a mechanistic explanation? What evidence do you have for
this? What we <i>know</i> is
that 'understanding' is not used like a name for a mechanistic
process – and certainly not a hypothetical one.” That's by no
means the last word on the subject, but it'll have to do for now.]</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><i>§§159-161:
The Conscious Act of Reading</i></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">The
discussion now switches back to the first-person experience of
reading. Isn't that the essential thing which distinguishes <i>actual</i>
reading from merely pretending or the free-association of sounds with
marks on a page? </span>
</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Wittgenstein
counters with the imaginary case where a drug produces a feeling of
reciting from memory in someone who is in fact reading a passage he's
never seen before. A variation is offered in which the person feels
he is reading when he is actually associating words with signs in a
completely unfamiliar alphabet. In the first case we would say he was
reading despite his feelings to the contrary. In the second case,
classification would depend on his reaction to the signs. If his
words bore no clear relation to them (eg, he read “^#*” as “blue”
on one occasion but as “left” on another) we'd say he wasn't
reading. But if the same words were always associated with the same
signs then we'd perhaps be more inclined to say he was. That is, it
wouldn't be clear whether he was reading or not – it would be up to
us.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">[The
point, of course, is that his <i>experiences</i>
are not the decisive factor in either case. But nor is it exclusively
down to what he does (for he might speak exactly the same words both
times). Rather, it is down to what he does <i>given the
particular circumstances in each case</i>.
Wittgenstein underlines this with the experiment in §161. What is
the difference between counting to twelve and reading the numbers
from a watch dial? Again (I think) the implied answer is: the
circumstances.]</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><i>§§162-164:
Derivation</i></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Here
we switch back to understanding as a process – specifically the
process of <i>deriving</i>.
It's an idea that has sort of been “in the air”, but not directly
confronted, ever since §146b (the same is true, by the way, of
rule-following, which is closely connected to derivation; see §143a,
§147 and §162).</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Wittgenstein
describes a particular case in which we'd be inclined to class
reading as an example of deriving sounds from a text. But immediately
comes the objection that we don't have enough here to be <i>sure</i>
this is derivation; we taught him the alphabet, he read the words –
what right have we to say that the link between the two was <i>deriving</i>?
</span>
</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">[Note:
(a) this already treats derivation as an “inner” or “hidden”
thing; and (b) we're at once tempted to look inside <i>ourselves</i>
and search for it there. This goes some way towards explaining why
the discussion constantly switches between third- and first-person
perspectives.]</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">So
Wittgenstein alters his description to make it an even clearer case
of deriving – that is, he changes the <i>circumstances</i>.
But here it's objected (§163) that even if this <i>is</i>
derivation, we can't assert it simply because the pupil looks at the
chart and writes the “correct” letters. For <i>whatever</i>
he writes might be classed as derivation according to some rule or
other, and thus be “correct” (the “anything goes” argument –
cf, §139). And now the very concept of derivation starts to look
empty.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">In
§164 Wittgenstein offers the moral of the story: our search for the
<i>essence</i> of deriving
has led us into darkness, for there is no such thing. Instead, we
have a complex <a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.co.uk/2011/09/drawing-line-family-resemblance.html">family</a>
of <i>circumstances</i> in
which the word “deriving” is warranted.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">[A
brief elaboration: when we treated deriving as a hidden essence it
became logically distinct from its consequences. As a result, the
very essence we thought we needed to find became empty. Compare this
to the case of mental pictures (§139) and the “two criteria”
objection to dispositions in §149. Also compare it to the famous
“beetle in a box” example in §293. But our grammar doesn't treat
deriving as if it was a thing in a box; instead it <i>conceptually</i>
links it to various performances in various circumstances. These
circumstances sometimes <i>include</i>
what went through someone's mind (“I recited to myself 'Richard of
York gave battle in vain' and derived the answer from that”). But
sometimes they don't.]</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><i>§§165-178:
“Experiencing the Because”</i></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Yet
again we revert back to a first-person argument. The discussion
considers a cluster of related claims:</span></div>
<ul>
<li><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">we know from our own experience that
reading is a particular process (§165); </span>
</div>
</li>
<li><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">the words come in a distinctive way
(§165); </span>
</div>
</li>
<li><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">they somehow cause our utterance
(§169); </span>
</div>
</li>
<li><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">we feel the connecting mechanism
between the word and our utterance (§169).</span></div>
</li>
</ul>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">So
finally the third- and first-person arguments come together. Reading
is both a mechanism <i>and</i> a characteristic experience; it is a
characteristic experience of a mechanism at work . </span>
</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">At
each stage, however, Wittgenstein (a) exposes this account as a
<i>picture</i> that we adopt rather than a straightforward
description of the the facts, and (b) undermines the temptation to
adopt this picture.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<ul>
<li><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§165. If reading <i>is</i> a
characteristic experience then it doesn't matter what sounds result
as they can all be linked to the text according to some rule or
other. [This brings together the “two criteria” argument (§149,
§153, §§163-164), and the “anything goes” argument (§139,
§§163-164).]</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
</li>
<li><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§165. Moreover, it's not enough that
the written words makes the spoken ones “occur” to me, or
“remind” me of it. That could happen yet what I utter might
still be <i>incorrect</i>. Mere association is not enough.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
</li>
<li><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§166. The claim that the words come
in a <i>distinctive</i> way is a fiction. Consider normal cases of
reading: we don't even think about how the words come or if there's
something distinctive about it. We see the words and we make the
sounds. What else do we know? Of course, we notice a difference when
we (eg) associate sounds with squiggles but it mis-describes reading
to therefore conclude that the words come in a special way. With
reading it's automatic, with squiggles it isn't. That's the
difference. And it's not an experiential difference; it's a
<i>circumstantial</i> one.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
</li>
<li><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§167. There is no single
characteristic experience of reading. This undermines the idea that
reading is a particular process that we experience. [To put it
another way: even if there <i>is</i> a particular process, we cannot
infer its existence from the experience of reading, for that
experience is extremely varied.]</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
</li>
<li><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§169. It makes no sense to say that
we experience the causing. Causation is established by experiment,
tests, etc; it is not something that can be felt. [That would be
like saying “I'm feeling inflation” when I'm shocked by how much
the price of bread has risen.] This is a categorical (grammatical)
distinction. Indeed, we do not say that the text is the cause of our
reading – rather, it is the <i>reason</i> we utter the words that
we do. That is, we appeal to a standard of <i>correctness</i>, not
to causation.</span></div>
</li>
</ul>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§§170-178
provide a kind of summary. We assume that the difference between
reading letters and associating sounds with squiggles represents
(respectively) the presence and absence of influence. But being
influenced (or guided) is no more a particular experience than
reading is. It forms a wide family of cases, and the important factor
is not the presence of a particular experience but the <i>circumstances</i>
pertaining to any given case.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">None
of this bothers us during actual use, but when we reflect on these
things mere circumstances can seem insufficient. We're tempted to
posit a particular source of influence (in other words, we've started
<i>theorising</i>). Maybe it's a strange feature of the words
themselves – as if they exercised a kind of “thought control” –
or a process (perhaps physical) operating behind the scenes. And now
we take our varied experiences to be experiences <i>of</i> this
elusive form of influence. We look at them “through the medium of
the concept 'because'” (§177). Of course, it is right to say that
we're influenced, but not because of any particular experience or
process. Rather, it is correct to apply the word “influenced” in
all these varied circumstances. [We have supposed an essence, but
what we needed was to recognise a family resemblance concept.]</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><u><b>4.
§§179-184. Back to Understanding</b></u></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Wittgenstein
now applies to understanding the insights gained from considering the
case of reading. Not surprisingly, this involves reiterating the
point made in §§154-155: “The words 'Now I know how to go on'
were correctly used when the formula occurred to him: namely under
certain circumstances. For example, if he had learnt algebra, had
used such formulae before” (§179).</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">At
the same time, he's aware of the temptation to take this point the
wrong way. We might, for example, suppose that “now I know” (or
“I understand”) is a kind of shorthand <i>description</i> of the
circumstances – as if we somehow <i>deduced</i> that we understood
from the fact that the situation was one in which “now I know”
would make sense. This harks back to the interlocutor's point at
§147: “When <i>I</i> say I understand the rule of the series, I'm
surely not saying so on the basis of the <i>experience</i> of having
applied the algebraic formula in such-and-such a way!” This is
correct, but the interlocutor's mistake is to assume it shows that
the circumstances are irrelevant. Rather, it shows that they do not
connect with the language-game in the way he supposes. We do not
appeal to them as a criterion of application; they are the context
within which our criteria make sense. They “set the stage for our
language-game” (§179).</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">A
second temptation is to think that the circumstances form part of a
<i>causal</i> explanation. Here the supposition is that if the right
circumstances are in place (general education and other background
features + the formula occurring to the pupil + a characteristic
experience of understanding) then the pupil <i>must</i> continue the
series correctly (§183). That this is mistaken can be shown from the
fact that even where the phrase “now I know” is warranted it is
still <i>defeasible</i> – the pupil might still be unable to
continue the series correctly. In such a case we would normally say
that the pupil's statement was wrong: he didn't in fact know. But it
was still <i>understandable</i>. [Compare this to a case where you
show a formula to someone with no mathematical training whatsoever
and he says “now I know how to go on”. In those circumstances his
claim is not so much <i>wrong</i> as completely bizarre.]</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">These
considerations throw light on the role of “now I know”. It is
best not thought of as a description of a mental state at all (§180).
Rather it is a signal that the pupil is confident (perhaps certain)
that he can go on correctly. But, of course, being certain you can
give the right answer and actually doing it are not the same thing.
We frequently find ourselves ruefully saying “I was so <i>sure</i>
that answer was right!”</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><u><b>Next
Steps: Rule-Following</b></u></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">I
started this summary with a list of questions, but there's one I've
not really considered so far: how can we grasp the whole use of a
word in an instant? This is raised right back in §139 and is
occasionally glanced at during the discussion (eg, §147: “I surely
know that I mean such-and-such a series, no matter how far I've
actually developed it”). Knowing the <i>whole</i> use of a word
seems a criterion of understanding, just as knowing what a chess pawn
is means knowing how it can move in any given position. But how <i>can</i>
we know the whole use of a word? For however we've used a word up
till now, what happens when we come to apply it in a completely new
situation? How is our past experience supposed to help us?</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Surely
when I grasped the rule for using the word “cat” I didn't know
that it could be used in the sentence “The cat sat on Jupiter's
second-largest moon”? And yet in some sense I clearly <i>did</i>
know that, for I was able to form the sentence without any trouble at
all. It didn't come as a surprise to me that “cat” could be used
in that context. The rule, it seems, guides us effortlessly through
countless permutations that weren't envisaged when we learnt it.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">How
does it achieve this? Or, to put it more generally, what is the
connection between the rule and its application? What keeps them in
sync? That is the issue which forms the heart of the discussion in
§§185-242.</span></div>
Philip Cartwrighthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11458571502536123264noreply@blogger.com72tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6701420428167031490.post-55202085791922689452013-12-09T17:14:00.000+00:002013-12-11T04:43:20.446+00:00Another UpdateFirst, I've added a topic list, as you can see from the bar below the blog header. Hopefully that'll make the site a bit easier to navigate - I've found it pretty cumbersome recently when I've been looking to provide links to old posts.<br />
<br />
Actually, that reminds me: I must get round to testing/updating the links in the right-hand column. Oh, and while I'm on the subject, don't bother with the Wittgenstein discussion forum that's listed there. It's run by a Quinean naturalist who only thinks he's a Wittgensteinian and can't understand why linking meaning to brain-states isn't something Wittgenstein would've advocated. Seriously! [Actually, turns out this was untrue - see comments below.] Maybe he's Dan Dennett in disguise. Needless to say, I was barred from the forum after a few posts. And, yes, alcohol was probably a factor.<br />
<br />
Finally, the next proper post should be up in a few days. It's an overview of the entire discussion of understanding. Hopefully there'll also be a link to a PDF version, as it's a bit long.Philip Cartwrighthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11458571502536123264noreply@blogger.com11tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6701420428167031490.post-35080133409733846422013-10-16T12:47:00.000+01:002013-10-16T18:42:33.512+01:00Understanding Part 1: Pictures §138-142<div style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><u>1.
The mythology of understanding as something “inner”</u></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">As
I discussed in my previous post, a rapid series of modulations brings
us to the topic of understanding when, at the end of <span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§</span>138,
the interlocutor says:</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.25cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">But we <i>understand</i> the meaning
of a word when we hear or say it; we grasp the meaning at a stroke,
and what we grasp in this way is surely something different from the
'use' which is extended in time!</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">This
is probably the strongest objection so far to Wittgenstein's account
of meaning. Its power stems from the way it ties into various
extremely tempting ideas about the process of communication. Above
all, it suggests that understanding is some kind of <i>thing</i> that
we acquire when we learn the meaning of a word, and which is
subsequently represented to us whenever we hear that word.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">The
appeal of this idea is bolstered by various simple reflections. When
we come to know the meaning of a word we <i>gain</i> understanding –
so we must've gained <i>something</i>! Likewise, if we don't know the
meaning of a word then we <i>lack</i> understanding – so
“understanding” must be whatever it is we lack. And although we
might exhibit understanding in performance (eg, by using a word
correctly), that is not understanding <i>itself</i>; it is merely
evidence from which others can infer that we do indeed <i>possess</i>
understanding.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Moreover,
when we hear words we are immediately aware of our understanding. The
words strike us in a quite vivid and particular way. We don't simply
hear sounds or see ink-marks on a page (or shapes on a computer
screen) – we hear (or read) <i>language</i>. We <i>experience</i>
the meanings that it conveys. To see that this is so, just compare
the case of reciting a passage we don't understand (having learnt it
parrot-fashion, perhaps) with that of reciting one whose words are
familiar to us. Surely it is undeniable that what happens inside us
in the two cases is completely different?</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Such
considerations present a challenge for Wittgenstein. When we
understand a word we understand its meaning. But what we grasp in the
instant of understanding doesn't seem to be anything like a <i>use</i>.
(And, in any case, is use something that <i>could</i>
be grasped in an instant?) But if what we grasp isn't use then
<i>meaning</i> can't be use.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><u>2.
Pictures and their application</u></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Wittgenstein
begins his assault on this appealing conception by considering the
notion that understanding is a <i>picture</i>
that comes before our mind when we hear a word (<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§</span>139).
It's a natural enough place to start given that his early philosophy
propounded what's called “the picture theory of language”.
Moreover, that theory was itself a refinement of a venerable
philosophical position dating back at least as far as Locke's <i>Essay
Concerning Human Understanding</i>.
In my <a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.co.uk/2013/10/from-logical-form-to-understanding.html">last
post</a> I gave a rough sketch of the account of communication that
the picture theory tends to suggest. It might be helpful to repeat
that here:</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Person
A has the thought, in the form of a picture, that things are
thus-and-so. She wants to communicate her thought to B so she
“converts” it into a proposition: she speaks, writes, uses
sign-language or Morse code, etc. The words she uses relate to the
elements of her picture and are arranged in a similar fashion. Next,
B perceives A's proposition and he re-converts it into a thought.
That is to say, the words he hears (reads, etc) produce a picture in
his mind. That picture is his understanding of what A said. If he has
the same picture he has understood correctly; if he has a different
picture then he has misunderstood (and if he has no picture at all
then he has not understood at all). The correctness of his picture
can be inferred from his behaviour. Of course, we can't be <i>sure</i>
B's picture matches A's but so long as he fetches the right object
(etc) then it is reasonable to assume that it does.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">In
attacking the idea of understanding as a picture, it is this last
part of the account that Wittgenstein focuses upon: the link between
the picture and subsequent behaviour. He points out (<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§</span>139)
that, whatever might happen in our minds, our behaviour is still a
criterion for understanding. If someone consistently <i>uses</i>
a word incorrectly then we say that he or she doesn't understand its
meaning. So understanding is clearly bound up with use in some sense.
But if understanding is a mental picture then what is the link
between that picture and use? “Can what we grasp <i>at a
stroke</i> agree with a use, fit or
fail to fit it?” (<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§</span>139.)
Wittgenstein suggests an answer to his own question: let's assume
that when I hear the word “cube” I get a picture of a cube in my
mind. If I point to a cube my use fits the picture, but if I point to a
triangular prism instead then my use has failed to fit the picture. </span>
</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">At
first blush this seems straightforward, but Wittgenstein argues that
it will not do. The problem is: who is to say that pointing to the
triangular prism actually <i>is</i>
an incorrect use of the picture? </span>
</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">His objection is couched in terms of the picture's “method of projection”.
I assume that's a glance back to Wittgenstein's time as an
engineering student and refers to techniques used in technical
drawing. I'm afraid I have roughly zero understanding of such things
(I looked up geometric projection on Wikipedia and it didn't help)
but there are other ways of making the same point. Basically it comes
to this: a picture by itself stands in need of <i>a method of
application</i>. If no method is
stipulated then it's impossible to say whether a picture has been
used rightly or wrongly. </span>
</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">So,
returning to the example of “cube”, the word presents me with a
picture:</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEio2lNAkSfpCVp-bP3hSfSSdHGc5qStMlDJIj5pS31TIvOP4ijuoMOzkX0U7xY4Qo99X-ZfHx2Jni0E0qh7GGB24gpnD3CX6eDHdXZ6JGZbg9KoNMONEu1TfeGblDBW_tLPd712_-_kEas/s1600/cube.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEio2lNAkSfpCVp-bP3hSfSSdHGc5qStMlDJIj5pS31TIvOP4ijuoMOzkX0U7xY4Qo99X-ZfHx2Jni0E0qh7GGB24gpnD3CX6eDHdXZ6JGZbg9KoNMONEu1TfeGblDBW_tLPd712_-_kEas/s1600/cube.JPG" /></a></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;">I
then look about me and spot a triangular prism. I realise that in
both cases they have equal ends and parallel rectilinear figures and
that their sides are parallelograms. I therefore point to the
triangular prism because, </span><i style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;">in that sense</i><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;">,
it is the same as my picture. In other words, I have used my picture
as an example of a prism (for a cube is a prism too). That might seem
an </span><i style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;">unusual</i><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"> way of
applying the picture, but who is to say that it's </span><i style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;">wrong</i><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;">?</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">To
see how far use can deviate from expectation, consider the following
example: I present someone with a dog and an iPhone. I then give him
a photo of the dog and ask him to choose which of the two items it
most resembles. He chooses the iPhone because, like the photo, you
can hold it in your hand, put it in your pocket, etc. Of course most
of us would automatically choose the dog, but that is only because we
are already familiar with the activity of picking things out from
photos. It is something we’ve done countless times and so it
probably wouldn’t even occur to us to use the photo in a different
way. But there is nothing that says choosing the dog <i>must</i>
be the correct response in all circumstances. Indeed to someone with
a different upbringing from ours the dog might seem an <i>absurd</i>
choice.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">The
picture, don't forget, is not being cast as an <i>aid</i>
to understanding; it is supposed to be the thing <i>itself</i>.
But it's hard to see how it can play that role when it provides no
standard of correctness. If this observation seems familiar, that's
because it is closely analogous to the point made about <a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.co.uk/2012/04/meaning-is-use-part-2-caveat-and.html">ostensive
definition</a> in relation to meaning. There, it was supposed that
the sample <i>by itself</i>
could establish a link between word and object, that it was
completely unambiguous and therefore unmistakable. But it turned out that it
only functioned as part of an established practice of describing the
<i>rule</i> for the use of a
word. And it's a very similar story in the case of the picture (which
is, after all, a kind of <i>mental</i>
sample). We have the sample, but what we lack is the application. (I
should also mention that as well as looking back to ostensive
definition this point also anticipates aspects of the discussion of
rule-following. See, for example, <span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§</span>201:
“if every course of action can be brought into accord with the
rule, then it can also be brought into conflict with it. And so there
would be neither accord nor conflict here”. This overlap should not
be surprising; the concept of understanding is internally connected
to the concept of meaning. Each helps define the other. And they are
both closely bound up with the concept of rule-following.)</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><u>3. Compulsion</u></span></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">The
reminder that a picture can be used in various different ways also
serves to highlight (and undermine) another temptation regarding
understanding as an “inner” phenomenon: the assumption that the
relation between representation and what is represented somehow takes
care of itself. We don't need to stipulate a method of application
because the picture does it for us. It's especially easy to think
like this when we focus on the immediacy and fluency with which we
usually understand language. We don't have to struggle to grasp the
meaning – in fact, it's impossible for us <i>not</i>
to understand. It's as if the picture somehow carries its meaning
within it, like a kind of spirit, and exposure to the picture
transfers this spirit to us, so that we cannot help but see the
picture as an image of <i>this</i>
object. The words (or rather the images they produce) <i>force</i>
an application on us (<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§</span>140).
</span>
</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">In
the <i>Tractatus</i> this
seems to be regarded as a kind of <i>logical</i>
compulsion. So long as picture and fact share the same logical
structure there <i>cannot</i>
be doubt about what's represented. Of course, this idea is exploded
by the simple observations in <span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§</span>139
(it is, in fact, another example of a <a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.co.uk/2011/09/death-of-metaphysics.html">rule
misrepresented as a necessary feature of the world</a>). But there
are other ways of presenting the idea of compulsion. As Wittgenstein
says in <span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§</span>140,
“we might also be inclined to express ourselves like this: we're at
most under a psychological, not a logical, compulsion”. He then
adds a typically cryptic coda: “And now, indeed, it looks as if we
knew of two kinds of case.” What's he getting at here? </span>
</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">I
think this is a warning against defending a preconception by taking
refuge in theoretical explanations. We assumed we were under
compulsion; the idea that it was a logical one has proved empty, so
now we say it must be “some other kind”. And, happily, we hit
upon the notion of “psychological compulsion” as a
plausible-sounding alternative. (Already we can see the bewitching
idea of a <i>mental mechanism</i>
looming on the horizon.) But notice how vague all this is! How much
do we actually <i>know</i> about psychological compulsion? Is it <i>clear</i>
that this is an example of it? And how do we propose to find out?
Will we be conducting field experiments or can we decide things from
our armchairs? Isn't the idea of psychological compulsion just a
<i>guess</i> – and a guess
that invokes a mysterious realm of mental structures, subconscious
computation, and so forth?</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">There's
a second, perhaps more fundamental, issue. We've been attempting to
clarify the concept of understanding, but now it looks as if we're
sliding into a quasi-causal explanation. But that's like trying to
find out what a watch <i>is</i>
by examining the structure of its cogs and springs. Such an
investigation may be useful in various ways, but it won't tell you
anything about the role watches play in people's lives. For that you
need to describe their <i>use</i>,
not their internal mechanisms. The notion of compulsion tempts us
away from a conceptual investigation towards an ersatz scientific one
which is doomed to failure from the outset.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Well,
Wittgenstein may be <i>alluding</i>
to such thoughts in <span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§</span>140,
but he doesn't elaborate on them at this point. Instead, he sidesteps
the quagmire of compulsion and brings things down to earth: “our
'belief that the picture forced a particular application upon us'
consisted in the fact that only the one case and no other occurred to
us.” This, of course, is a move from the theoretical back to the
descriptive. <i>Why</i> no
other case occurred to us is not Wittgenstein's concern. But the fact
that they didn't made it seem like the picture could only be applied
in one way even though (as we now see) that's not true at all. </span>
</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">It
is this observation that subsequently allows him to answer the
question in <span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§</span>139:
how can what's grasped in an instant fit or fail to fit a use?
“[T]hey can clash in so far as the picture makes us expect a
different use; because people in general apply <i>this</i>
picture like <i>this</i>”
(<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§</span>141).
What seemed to be a mysterious (perhaps impossible) relation between
two entirely different phenomena turns out to be remarkably simple
and ordinary.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><u>4. Building in the
application</u></span></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Maybe,
however, compulsion isn't the only answer. Perhaps we could build the
application into the picture itself, thereby allowing it to perform
its allotted function. Wittgenstein considers this in <span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§</span>141.
“How,” he asks, “am I to imagine this?” The answer he
suggests is a picture of two cubes with lines of projection between
them. Something a bit like this perhaps:</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgq48kOF6lxOqglhguMgrSK6FP7ak2IimevYUrHT6RJnBYkDq37aICF4bJ5NDPUST3ifjlARSiMq1-C-W-wVmyq5MuxYyGmAWcF3IHSl0XWa5b5GBjoJlEjG6DFkvFKiT_7kgXRMRo4jA4/s1600/cube+2.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="161" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgq48kOF6lxOqglhguMgrSK6FP7ak2IimevYUrHT6RJnBYkDq37aICF4bJ5NDPUST3ifjlARSiMq1-C-W-wVmyq5MuxYyGmAWcF3IHSl0XWa5b5GBjoJlEjG6DFkvFKiT_7kgXRMRo4jA4/s320/cube+2.JPG" width="320" /></a></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;">Actually,
I don't think that quite works. The cube on the left presumably
represents the mental image and the one on the right represents
actual cubes in the world (and the lines attempt to show the relation
between the two). But we no longer have the mental image that the
left-cube pictures! So we're going to need two separate images:
first, the picture of the cube by itself and, second, the picture of
the two cubes showing how the cube in the first picture is to be
applied. But this raises a further problem: how do we know the
relationship between these two images? How do we know that the
left-cube in the second image represents the cube in the first image?
Aren't we going to need a </span><i style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;">third</i><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;">
image depicting the relation between the two we already have? And
won't that in turn require a fourth and fifth image linking the third
image to the first and second ones? And so on.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">In
a roundabout way this comes to the same objection that Wittgenstein
makes about his own proposed image: whatever its content it will
still just be another picture, and will therefore stand in need of an
application. It's not simply that the initial picture <i>did</i>
<i>not</i> provide its
application (as if that were a kind of oversight); it <i>could
not</i> do so. Application cannot be
provided in that way. </span>
</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Is
Wittgenstein claiming, then, that there's no such thing as an
application coming before one's mind? Of course not, but (he reminds
us in <span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§</span>141)
understanding what <i>that</i>
amounts to involves looking at the use of the phrase “the
application came before his mind”. It does <i>not</i>
involve a doomed attempt to posit a hypothetical picture with
miraculous powers. Instead of analysing the phrase himself, however, Wittgenstein leaves it up to us investigate. I think it's worth
having a go because the conclusions it suggests (to me, at any rate)
tie in with many of the points he will shortly be making about other
accounts of understanding. Here's what I came up with:</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">a. Suppose I've been
teaching someone to use mathematical formulae. Now I show her the
series 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8 and ask her to continue it. She ponders
for a while and then cries “I've got it!” I ask her what's
occurred to her and she writes down the formula “Fn = Fn-1 + Fn-2”.
Then she correctly continues the series. That would count, I think,
as an example of the application coming before her mind. Something
occurred to her <i>and</i> it helped her continue the series.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">b. However, it would also
count if, instead of the formula, she writes down “Each new number
is the sum of the previous two”. So what comes before her mind
needn't be one specific thing. </span>
</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">c.
But suppose instead when I show her the series she simply says “Oh,
that's easy!” and correctly continues it: “...13, 21, 34, 55...”.
And when I ask what occurred to her she says “Nothing – it was
obvious.” (Perhaps she's worked through the series numerous times
before.) Here <i>no</i>
application came before her mind; she just knew what to do. In other
words, correct performance by itself is not a sufficient criterion.
Did she <i>understand</i> my
order to continue the series? Yes, but that shows you can understand
something <i>without</i> an
application coming before your mind. </span>
</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">d.
Finally, suppose that she writes down the formula as in the first
example, but then has no idea how to continue the series. It later
transpires that she'd previously seen the formula written below the
series and that's why it occurred to her. Here again the <i>application</i>
has not come before her mind even though what occurs to her – the
formula – is exactly the same as in the first example. So correct
performance might not be sufficient, but it's clearly important. </span>
</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">But
what, then, is the difference between (a) and (d)? From the point of
view of the criteria for the phrase “the application came before
her mind”, the difference is not what's in her mind but her past
experiences: her education, training and so on. The formula only
counts as the application in the right <i>circumstances</i>.
We might sum up all these reflections in the following way: however
you slice it, understanding involves more (and sometimes less) than
an application coming before one's mind.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><u>5. Conclusion</u></span></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">A picture cannot fulfil
the role of understanding by itself. This is not to deny that at
least sometimes a word can bring an image before our minds, nor that
the image might help us to use the word correctly. But it cannot
<i>show</i> that we have used the word correctly; it supplies no
method of application and hence no standard of correctness – and
the criteria for applying the term “understanding” are closely
bound up with correct usage.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">However, the appeal of
supposing understanding to be an inner “Something” is not so
easily dispelled. Thus, for example, we might think that (questions
of application aside) the pictorial account of understanding is
implausible simply because it doesn't seem to match what actually
happens. When we hear someone speak we don't get a torrent of
pictures running through our minds one after the other. Yet instead
of making us abandon the idea, this objection typically leads to
attempts at refining it. We might wonder, for example, if the
pictures are somehow unnoticed. Do they go by too fast? Are they
perhaps unconscious? And need they be <i>conventional</i> images at
all? Mightn't they take a form that we wouldn't easily recognise as
pictures – formulae, for example? Now comes the thought that what
we're really talking about is something that allows us to <i>compute</i>
the correct output for a given input. And if that's the case, then
isn't “understanding” a question of having the right mental
<i>structure</i> – one that facilitates correct responses? And need
this structure actually be <i>mental</i>? Couldn't it be a state of
the brain? And so on.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;">It is these types of
“refinement” that Wittgenstein considers in the remaining
sections on understanding. They all, I think, flounder on the point
already made: “understanding” is bound up with application, and
correctness of application can only be given by an established
</span><i style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;">practice</i><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;">. Nevertheless, it is important for Wittgenstein to
deal with these new variations because otherwise the suspicion will
remain that he has been over-hasty. The prejudice in favour of the
inner “Something” is deep-rooted; digging it out requires tracing
it through all its manifestations. So that's the next post.</span><br />
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
</div>
Philip Cartwrighthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11458571502536123264noreply@blogger.com24tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6701420428167031490.post-33776779803660804432013-10-10T20:20:00.000+01:002013-10-10T20:45:33.154+01:00From Logical Form to Understanding: the Transition from §137 to §138<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;">§138
begins a sustained investigation into the concept of understanding.
I'll begin unpicking its various strands (which is a daunting
prospect) in my next post, but here I want to examine the way
Wittgenstein introduces the topic. Basically </span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;">§</span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;">138
perplexed me when I re-read it recently and it took a fair amount of
effort to tease out the trajectory of its thought. That might just
have been dimness on my part (in which case I apologise in advance
for what's to follow), but I suspect that for many readers of the
</span><i style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;">Investigations</i><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"> – especially those unfamiliar with the
</span><i style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;">Tractatus</i><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"> – it can be easy to miss what Wittgenstein is
doing in this section.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Typically,
the shift between <a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.co.uk/2013/06/propositional-form.html">propositional
form</a> (§§134-137) and understanding (§§138-184) is treated as
one of those abrupt changes of subject the author warns us about in
his preface. Fogelin, for example, states that in §138 “Wittgenstein
turns from his attack upon Tractarian themes” (Fogelin,
<i>Wittgenstein</i>, second edition, p144 – I like the word
“Tractarian”, by the way, and intend to make full use of it from
now on). Hacker and Baker, by contrast, are a bit more nuanced. In
<i>Wittgenstein: Understanding and Meaning</i> we are told that
“§§1-142 of the <i>Investigations</i> are Janus-faced, looking
back to the errors of the <i>Tractatus</i> […] and forward to the
very different account now being unfolded” (Volume I, p357). And
then, a little later, “<span style="color: black;">§§</span><span style="color: black;">138–142
mark a change” (ibid). So, it would seem, the breach-proper comes
at </span><span style="color: black;">§143 and §§138-142 form a sort of
pivot or gateway into the full expression of Wittgenstein's new
philosophical approach. Nonetheless, even here there's little or no
sense that the discussion of understanding </span><span style="color: black;"><i>arises
out of</i></span><span style="color: black;"> what comes before it, nor are
we offered an account of how or why the one leads to the other.
(Hacker and Baker might cover this in the exegesis, but – forgive
me – I've never read it. There </span><span style="color: black;"><i>are</i></span><span style="color: black;">
limits, you know.)</span></span></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black;">But
that's curious, because when you actually read the text the
transition feels pretty seamless. Usually when Wittgenstein makes a
jump it's not too hard to spot (eg, §134 or §243), but in this case
§138 is clearly presented as a </span><span style="color: black;"><i>continuation</i></span><span style="color: black;">
of the discussion in §137. Indeed, the topic of understanding is
raised before we've hardly realised it. At the same time, however, it
must be admitted that there's something a bit odd about the
transition. It </span><span style="color: black;"><i>reads</i></span><span style="color: black;">
like a continuation and yet, upon closer inspection, it's not at all
clear how it fits with what's gone before. Is Wittgenstein resorting
to a kind of authorial sleight-of-hand? Why would he bother –
especially given his near-pathological aversion to fudging things?
Why not just make the jump and have done with it? Time for a closer
look.</span></span></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§§136-</span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">137
consider the claim that the concept of truth and falsity
(truth-functionality) </span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><i>fits</i></span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">
the concept “proposition”. That is to say, the two concepts
</span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><i>necessarily</i></span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">
go together. Wittgenstein exposes this idea as a grammatical remark
misleadingly disguised as a description (see <a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.co.uk/2013/06/propositional-form.html">Propositional
Form</a>). At first blush, the start of </span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§</span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">138
merely seems part of this debate; with typical doggedness the
interlocutor suggests a further example of “fitting” in order to
shore up his position: </span>
</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm; margin-left: 1.27cm;">
“<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">But can’t the
meaning of a word that I understand fit the sense of a sentence that
I understand? Or the meaning of one word fit the meaning of another?”</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">When
you think about it, though, this is strange. What does the idea of a
word “fitting” the sense of a sentence have to do with
truth-functionality “fitting” propositions? How does the one
<i>support</i> the other? It seems a glaring non sequitur. Of course,
they both use the notion of “fitting” in relation to language –
but, frankly, so what? If that’s all it amounts to then the
interlocutor might just as well have said “But surely there’s
such a thing as words fitting (or failing to fit) on a page?” We
need something stronger than that.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">To
make matters worse, Wittgenstein's response is in some ways just as
puzzling: “Of course, if the meaning is the <i>use</i> we make of
the word, it makes no sense to speak of such fitting” (<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§</span>138).
This seems to suggest that if meaning is use then there's no such
thing as a word fitting the sense of a sentence or of one word
fitting the meaning of another. But this is surely wrong! Not only do
we often talk about words fitting in this way, but when we do we are
usually concerned precisely with the question of use.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">So,
for example, someone with little English who wanted a drink might
wonder whether it was correct to say “Pass me the jug” or “Pass
me the water”. In such a case we would tell them that it didn't
really matter; in this context the words “jug” and “water”
both <i>fitted</i> the sense of the sentence. The two expressions
achieve the same thing; they are <i>used</i> in the same way.
(Imagine a culture where, instead of “jug” or “water”, they
had a word meaning “water-in-jug” that was always used on such
occasions. So if you said “Pass me the jug” they'd empty out the
water before handing it over, and if you said “Pass me the water”
they'd pour the water into your hands. In such a situation neither
“jug” nor “water” would fit the sense of the sentence – and
again that is entirely due to the conventions governing <i>use</i>.)
Here “fitting” is akin to <i>aptness</i>; it's a question of
which words are effective, which words get the job done.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">The
final puzzle in this puzzling section comes with the interlocutor's
response to Wittgenstein's criticism, which suddenly shifts the focus
away from “sense” and on to “understanding”. With palpable
exasperation the interlocutor says:</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm; margin-left: 1.25cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">But we <i>understand</i>
the meaning of a word when we hear or say it; we grasp the meaning at
a stroke, and what we grasp in this way is surely something different
from the 'use' which is extended in time!</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">This
is a pivotal moment in the <i>Investigations</i> and I'll be
discussing it in detail in my next post. But for our present purposes
the important issue is the connection between sense and
understanding. It may or may not be true to say that the phenomenon
of grasping meaning “at a stroke” sits uneasily with the claim
that meaning is use, but how on earth is this bound up with the idea
of a word fitting the sense of a sentence?</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">So
now we have three questions: </span>
</div>
<ol>
<li><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">How
does the idea of a word fitting the sense of a sentence support the
idea of truth-functionality fitting the concept of a proposition?</span></div>
</li>
<li><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Why
does Wittgenstein respond by seemingly ruling out the idea of such
fitting on the grounds that meaning is use?</span></div>
</li>
<li><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">What
is the connection between the sense of a sentence and understanding?</span></div>
</li>
</ol>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">The
answer to all three, I think, lies in what the interlocutor means by
“the sense of a sentence”. In common usage, explaining the sense
of a sentence typically involves paraphrasing it into a form that's
easier to understand. In such a context, therefore, “sense” is
roughly synonymous with “meaning”. But it shouldn't be forgotten
that <span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§§134-137 deal explicitly with
the Tractarian notion of propositional form, so when the interlocutor
raises the subject of “sense” in §138 he is still looking at
things from the point of view of the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><i>Tractatus</i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">.
That is, he is using “sense” according to the definition given at
</span>TLP 2.221: “What a picture represents is its sense”. </span>
</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">This
brings us up against the picture
theory of language. According to the <i>Tractatus</i>, the
essential thing about language is that it <i>pictures</i> logically
possible states of affairs. And it does this by mirroring the logical
structure of what it represents. So “The cat is on the mat”
presents us with objects arranged in a particular way, just like a
drawing might. The assertion it makes may or may not be true – to
find out we’d have to compare the sentence-picture with reality.
But even if it’s false it still has a <i>sense</i> because what it
pictures is possible: cats can be on mats. Compare this, however, to
“The cat is on selfishness”. That proposition is nonsense
precisely because it attempts to combine phenomena in an illicit way;
selfishness can’t be sat on any more than it can be eaten or set on
fire. So what the proposition attempts to represent cannot even be
pictured and therefore lacks <i>sense</i>.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Now,
how can we tell which words can legitimately be combined with which?
That is down to the a priori structure of the world, for it is this
structure which determines the combinational possibilities of
objects. And these combinational possibilities must, in turn, be
reflected in the logical syntax governing language. It is as if a
sentence beginning “The cat is on…” leaves a gap which can only
be filled by words of the right type. Or, to put it another way, only
the right type of word will <i>fit</i>. This, I think, is the type of
“fitting” that the interlocutor has in mind at the start of §138.
It belongs to a conception of language as a <i>structure</i> made up
of different shaped holes into which only the right kind of
“word-peg” can be slotted. And this type of “fitting” has
nothing to do with aptness or use; it is modelled on the physical
sense of the word, as when a plug fits into a socket or a hand fits
into a glove. Its ultimate legitimacy comes from the world rather
than linguistic convention.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Now
consider the very next line of the <i>Tractatus</i>, TLP 2.222:</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm; margin-left: 1.27cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">The agreement or
disagreement of its sense with reality constitutes its truth or
falsity. </span>
</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">A
proposition with a sense <i>must</i> be a picture of a possible state
of affairs. As such, that possible state of affairs <i>must</i>
either obtain or fail to obtain. In other words, a proposition <i>must</i>
be either true or false. So, according to the <i>Tractatus</i>, the
very notion of sense necessarily brings with it the notion of truth
and falsity. You cannot have one without the other.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Now
I think we can begin to see the connection between §137 and §138.
So far as the interlocutor is concerned, the requirement for
propositions to be true or false arises out of the definition of
“sense”. Criticism of the former inevitably implies criticism of
the latter. It is as if the interlocutor – worried by the attack on
truth-functionality – moves back a step to protect the prior link
in the chain of reasoning. For if that holds good then (it seems) the
subsequent links must also be preserved.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">To
put it more generally, both claims are part of the same broad
conception of language, ie: language as a kind of calculus whose
rules reflect the necessary structure of existence and rigidly
determine the way words operate. The various elements of the
conception are closely interwoven (that is part of the beauty of the
<i>Tractatus</i>); they hold each other in place and, consequently,
if any one element is attacked the others automatically rise up in
its defence (this, I think, sheds light on Wittgenstein's remark in
the <i>Blue Book</i> (p44) that “no philosophical problem can be
solved until all philosophical problems are solved”).</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">The
answer to question (2) is also now clear. It is not “fitting” <i>per
se</i> that Wittgenstein objects to so much as the interlocutor's
specific interpretation of the term and the philosophical theory that
lies behind it. (We might say that the interlocutor's remark at the
beginning of <span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§</span>138 is somewhat
duplicitous – he is trading on the ordinary meaning of “fitting”
and “sense” to make his claim seem straightforward and
uncontroversial.) The Tractarian account of “fitting” does indeed
make no sense if meaning is use. For as we have seen, from the
viewpoint of use, “fitting” is a matter of the role the word
plays rather than its ability to mirror a supposed a priori
world-structure. There <i>is</i> such a thing as a word fitting the
sense of a sentence, only not in the way the interlocutor claims.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Are
we any closer to answering question (3)? I think we are, but only if
we read between the lines. The interlocutor's exclamation at the end
of <span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§</span>138 (quoted above) marks
the point where we move from discussing ideas explicitly set out in
the <i>Tractatus</i> and on to what we might call the “uncredited
assumptions” that lurk behind those ideas and help make them seem
plausible. And one of those assumptions concerns the link between
sense and understanding.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">To
clarify this we need to return to the picture theory of language. As
we've seen, according to that theory a proposition pictures a
possible state of affairs which is its sense. But, of course, a
proposition doesn't just come out of nowhere – it expresses a
<i>thought</i>, and a thought is itself a picture (TLP 3: “A
logical picture of facts is a thought”). Therefore “In a
proposition a thought finds an expression that can be perceived by
the senses” (TLP 3.1). Now, what is it to <i>understand</i> a
proposition? 4.024 tells us: “To understand a proposition means to
know what is the case if it is true”. </span>
</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">From
these brief remarks it is possible to construct an account of
communication that goes like this: A has the thought that things are
thus-and-so. And this thought is in some sense a picture – that is,
whatever form it takes it must combine objects in a way that mirrors
a possible state of affairs. A wants to communicate her thought to B
so she “converts” it into a proposition. She speaks, writes,
draws, uses sign-language or Morse code, etc. The elements of the
proposition are arranged in a way that mirrors their combination in
A's thought (and thus also mirror a possible state of affairs in the
world). Now B perceives A's proposition and he (so to speak)
re-converts it into a thought in his mind. And that thought is, of
course, a picture. The <i>sense</i> of the picture is what it
represents, and it is precisely this that B needs to grasp in order
to understand the proposition. Grasping the sense of the picture
(seeing that it represents <i>this</i> possible state of affairs) and
understanding the proposition are one and the same thing.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">This
account will be familiar to anyone who's studied Empirical philosophy
(especially Locke). The connection it makes between sense and
understanding couldn't be more direct: grasping the sense <i>is</i>
understanding the proposition. Understanding, therefore, is a <i>thing</i>
(specifically, a picture) that we acquire <i>instantaneously</i> when
we perceive the proposition. And that is surely right, isn't it? For
when we hear or read words we understand them at once; we don't have
to wait until we've studied their <i>use</i> before we know what they
mean. So if the sense of a sentence isn't to be cashed-out along
Tractarian lines how do we account for instantaneous understanding?</span></div>
<br />
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">That
thought, it seems to me, completes the chain of argument that leads
from the discussion of propositional form in <span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§</span>137
to the topic of understanding at the end of <span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§</span>138.
Wittgenstein's criticism of “fitting” in relation to
truth-functionality causes the interlocutor to defend the notion of
sense from whence the necessity of truth-functionality originated.
And criticism of the notion of sense in turn provokes an appeal to
the nature of understanding, because the immediacy of understanding
can only be understood (it seems) if something like the Tractarian
account of sense holds good. By now we have indeed moved away from
the explicit theories of the <i>Tractatus</i> (which is notoriously
silent about how thought, understanding etc actually work), and so in
a way Fogelin, Hacker et al are right: <span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">§</span>138
represents a break. But it shouldn't be thought that we've moved on
to completely unrelated issues. We have moved from the <i>explicit</i>
theories of the Tractatus to the <i>implicit</i> assumptions that lay
behind them.</span></div>
Philip Cartwrighthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11458571502536123264noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6701420428167031490.post-25838343427467929002013-06-02T07:06:00.002+01:002013-06-02T07:06:56.269+01:00Propositional Form<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
I suggested in <a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.co.uk/2011/10/wittgensteins-toolkit.html">Wittgenstein's
Toolkit</a> that one way to view the <i>Philosophical
Investigations</i> is to see sections 1-133 as demolishing the “traditional”
approach to philosophy (exemplified by the <i>Tractatus</i>)
in order to establish a radically new method, which the rest of the book then puts
into practice. But this is just a rough guide, and of course things are not
quite as clear-cut as the distinction suggests. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
For a start, §134
does not confront some big, sexy philosophical issue like free will or the
nature of consciousness. Instead it begins a brief, curious discussion of the
sentence “This is how things are”. Readers unfamiliar with the <i>Tractatus </i>are likely to be completely
baffled. Of all the possible topics, why pick on this banal, inoffensive little
statement? Actually, however, although the transition is rather abrupt there
has already been a certain amount of (easy to miss) stage-setting. First, the
topic is glanced upon in §65 when Wittgenstein’s interlocutor accuses him of taking
the easy way out:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm;">
“You talk about all sorts of language-games, but have
nowhere said what is essential to language-games, and so to language [….] So
you let yourself off the very part of the investigation that once gave you the
most headache, the part about the <i>general
form of the proposition</i> and of language.”<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
Mention of propositional from leads
to Wittgenstein’s account of <a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.co.uk/2011/09/drawing-line-family-resemblance.html">family
resemblance concepts</a> (and that account will be highly relevant here).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
Then, at §114
Wittgenstein quotes directly from 4.5 of the TLP: “The general form of propositions
is: This is how things are.” His subsequent comment is typically cryptic: “That
is the kind of proposition one repeats to oneself countless times. One thinks
that one is tracing nature over and over again, and one is merely tracing round
the frame through which we look at it.” <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
That remark is also relevant to
the discussion in §134, but for present purposes the thing to remember is
that the idea of propositional form was of central importance to the <i>Tractatus</i>. There Wittgenstein had attempted
to sum it up in the phrase “This is how things are” (in German, “Es verhält
sich so und so” – see the postscript below for a discussion of the translation).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
Why was this idea so important?
Well, it was an attempt to capture the very <i>essence</i>
of language itself – to reveal at a stroke its necessary structure, the one
thing common to all forms of linguistic communication, and which distinguishes
them from mere arbitrary sounds or scratches on a page. Moreover, according to
the <i>Tractatus</i> propositions work by
mirroring (on the one hand) the thoughts they express and (on the other hand)
the states of affairs they represent. So by revealing the essential structure
of the proposition you <i>at the same time</i>
reveal the essential structure of both thought and the world. In his notebook
of 1915 Wittgenstein wrote that it would provide “the nature of all facts […]
the nature of all being”.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
That’s an astoundingly
ambitious claim, and it’s perhaps hard to see how so much metaphysical weight
could be supported by a phrase as unremarkable as “This is how things are”. But
for Wittgenstein (in the <i>Tractatus</i>)
it captured the proposition’s essential features in a pure and condensed form:
it showed that a proposition was a picture of a possible state of affairs (ie,
it asserted that something was the case); that it was a complex in which simple
names were linked in accordance with logical syntax (and this logical syntax in
turn mirrored the logical structure of the world); and that it was an essential
feature of a proposition that it could be assigned a <i>truth-value</i> – it was true if it pictured a possible state of
affairs which obtained and false if it pictured a possible state of affairs
which didn’t obtain.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
So although at first blush
“This is how things are” seems a trivial, empty formulation, the more you
unpack its implications the more it seems to take on an emblematic, almost <i>mystical</i>, status. As §114
mentions, you can find yourself repeating it over and over while straining to
see with absolute clarity the relationship between language and the world:
“This is how things stand, this is how things stand, <i>this</i> is how things <i>stand</i>….”<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
And it is to this totemic
sentence that Wittgenstein turns in §134. So just when we seemed set to
move into new territory we get one of the most backward-focused discussions in
the whole of the <i>Investigations</i>. On
the plus side, however, at least it seems we’re in for something momentous; having
already attacked the TLP’s general approach, Wittgenstein is now going to
strike at its very heart. Isn’t he? On the contrary! Rather than some “clash of
the Titans”, §134
provides one of the most striking examples of <i>bathos</i> to be found in philosophy. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
He starts by asking why he was
tempted to see “This is how things are” as the general form of the proposition.
Two reasons are offered: 1) it is itself a sentence and therefore an example of
the phenomenon he was seeking to explain; and 2) it is commonly used as a kind
of “schema” – a variable which stands in for a set of specific sentences. These
two aspects would seem to leave it well placed to carry out its required role.
But against this he makes two observations. First, there is nothing
compellingly precise about the form of words chosen in the <i>Tractatus</i>. Any number of alternatives might’ve done just as well
(eg, “such and such is the case” or “things are thus and so”) – indeed, even a
single letter (“p”) could be used, as happens in formal logic. Of course, it
would be ridiculous to call “p” the general form of the proposition, but this
just goes to show how the schematic aspect of “This is how things are” fails to
justify the metaphysical status allotted to it in the <i>Tractatus</i>. Indeed, its very role as a variable makes it atypical. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
This atypical quality is
brought home by Wittgenstein’s second observation: there is no such thing as
comparing “This is how things are” with reality in order to see if it is accurate.
And yet functioning as an object of comparison is supposedly an essential
aspect of propositions (TLP 4.05)! Without the possibility of comparison a
proposition cannot be assigned a truth-value (TLP 4.06). So the phrase chosen
to represent general propositional form fails to exhibit one of its (alleged) primary
characteristics. And if that’s so, how can “This is how things are” be called a
proposition <i>at all</i>? Now, the
Wittgenstein of the <i>Tractatus</i>
might’ve agreed with this point and replied that “This is how things are” was a
meaningless form of words which attempted to <i>say</i> what could only be <i>shown</i>
(and here an obscure metaphysical theory is being defended by an even more
baffling one). In the <i>Investigations</i>,
however, Wittgenstein sees no need for such obscurities; unlike “p”, “This is
how things are” is a well-known phrase with an uncontroversial <i>use</i> in our language. He concludes with
withering irony: “so it illustrates the fact that one feature of our concept of
a proposition is <i>sounding</i> like one”.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
So the sound (or look) of a
proposition is part of our concept of what a proposition is. That’s why we’re
not troubled by calling (eg) “I sing the body electric” a proposition even
though its meaning is obscure at best. (But what about “Joob wa stu”? Or “Gdk
rrrx pypy”?) And the “conventional” or “familiar” form of “This is how things
are” was one of the (unacknowledged) factors behind claiming it as the general
form of the proposition. But of course this familiarity is a contingent feature
of our particular language. In terms of the role the sentence plays it’s
possible to imagine it being replaced by “p”, or an underscore, or even a hand
gesture. But would we even have been <i>tempted</i>
to take Wittgenstein seriously if TLP 4.5 had stated “The general form of the
proposition is: ___”? Thus the grand metaphysical pronouncement which was to
lay bare “the nature of all being” turns out to be (at least in part) almost
comically human. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
But if we’re going to reject
the idea of propositional form, how can we account for the fact that we can and
do recognise propositions and distinguish them from other sounds or marks on
the page? This, of course, brings us back to the notion of family resemblance
concepts, as §135
makes clear. It links not just to §65 but also to §23, where Wittgenstein stresses
the endless variety of kinds of sentence. There is no one thing common to all
propositions. Instead, there are an overlapping series of similarities that <i>for us</i> mean it makes sense to group them
all under the same concept-word. If you have doubts about this, it’s relatively
simple (yet instructive) to produce a list of propositions which vary in terms
of their form and function. Here’s mine:<o:p></o:p></div>
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</div>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">The pen is on the table.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">All men are mortal.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">I am in pain.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Every rod has a length.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">King Lear</i><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">
is more profound than </span><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">Hamlet</i><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Heroin is better than sex.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Stately, plump Buck Mulligan came from the
stairhead, bearing a bowl of lather on which a mirror and a razor lay crossed.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">A fool and his money are soon parted.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">2x2=4.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">E=MC</span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">²</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">a=a</span></li>
</ul>
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<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
Confronted with the facts, the
metaphysical theory looks to be in trouble. But §136 considers an alternative
attempt to validate it by focussing on the concept of truth-functionality. To
be honest, I find it a tricky, frustratingly cursory section, but my reading of
it is as follows.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
First, we’re reminded that
truth-functionality as a necessary feature of propositions was one of the
things Wittgenstein tried to capture in “This is how things are”, and in doing
this he was (he felt) describing a necessary truth about language and its
connection to the world. So “Such and such is true (or false)” would’ve been
another way of expressing general form. But <i>if</i>
language is conceived of as a rigid calculus (as was the case in the <i>Tractatus</i>) then this new formulation
becomes problematic because “’p’ is true = p”. The “is true” part adds nothing;
it is a redundant clause. Of course, in language as it is actually used (ie,
not as a rigid calculus) “’p’ is true” is <i>not</i>
a pointless elaboration of p. “It’s true that I lied to you” doesn’t have the
same <i>use</i> as “I lied to you”. In fact,
it doesn’t even always have the same use as “I lied to you. It’s true.” So
either way “Such and such is true” fails to capture essence. From the point of
view of language as a calculus the “is true” part is redundant, and from the
point of view of use it is just another tool in the box rather than an
expression of necessary structure.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
That’s not to say, however, that
we can’t decide to adopt a definition such as “A proposition is whatever can be
true or false”. We might do so when we wished to use “proposition” in a technical
sense as something distinct from other types of sentences. So (on this basis)
“Give me a dollar” is not a proposition but “I gave you a dollar” is. The <i>technique</i> of asking “can it be called
true (or false)?” might be useful here in telling one from the other, rather
like the trick used to see if a large number is divisible by 3 (see §137).
It should be noted, however, that since “proposition” is a family resemblance
concept the meaning of assigning a truth-value will vary from case to case.
Consider, for example, the varying significance of replying “that’s true” or “that’s
false” to the following:<o:p></o:p></div>
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<ul>
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Paris is the capital of France.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">2+2=4.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Virtue is its own reward.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">A thing is identical to itself.</span></li>
</ul>
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<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
One might say “the kind of
truth is the kind of language-game” (cf PI Part II, §332).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
But the temptation here is to
assume that the phrase “A proposition is whatever can be true or false” <i>discovers</i> something about the world. Wittgenstein’s
discussion of this temptation focusses on the notion of truth and falsity <i>fitting</i> the concept of the proposition –
presumably because that was the form the temptation had taken in his particular
case. It is, so to speak, a <i>suggestive</i>
form of words, conjuring up the notion of “true” and “false” as jigsaw pieces
which only and always lock into another piece labelled “proposition”.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
One can see how this way of
looking at things might lead to puzzlement. For example, it suggests that truth
and falsity exist independently of propositions, even though they can interact
with nothing else. What sort of thing, then, <i>is</i> truth? In what sense does it exist? Are we talking about a
Platonic Form here? Or something akin to a soul? Or should we say that truth
and falsity do not exist independently of propositions but that the expression
of a proposition necessarily calls them into being? But how might that happen? How
can it be that truth and falsity <i>must</i>
come into being with the proposition even though they are distinct from it? –
For it cannot be an <i>accident</i> that the
two are connected in the way they are, as if it might just as easily have been
otherwise. But what is the nature of this necessary connection? Are we talking
about a pre-established harmony here? And what does that even mean? And so on.
The whole thing is starting to look thoroughly mysterious.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
At this point Wittgenstein
brings things down to earth by pointing out that the phrase “only a <i>proposition</i> can be true” is merely a
potentially misleading way of saying “we predicate ‘true’ and ‘false’ only of
what we call a proposition” (§136). In other words, it is the
expression of a rule – a <i>grammatical</i>
remark disguised as a description. (Re-read §114 now and you will see the
relevance of the comment there about TLP 4.5. In fact, §114 is an aphoristic version of
the point made in §50. See also <a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.co.uk/2011/09/death-of-metaphysics.html">"The
Death of Metaphysics"</a> for more on this.) What we thought was a
startling, almost mystical, <i>discovery</i>
– a truth about the world that could not <i>logically</i>
be false – turns out to be nothing more than a definition enshrined in a
typically idiomatic form of expression.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
And now we can see where the
puzzling sense of necessity came from: it was linked to the categorical nature
of rules. They say “You <i>must</i> do
things this way if you want to play the game. If you don’t then you’re playing
the game wrong – or else you’re playing a different game altogether”. The
hardness of the metaphysical “must” is a misunderstanding, a shadow cast by
grammar.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
Ultimately, then, Wittgenstein
attacks the notion of propositional form as a typical example of the “sublimation”
of our language (cf <a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.co.uk/2011/09/logic-and-magic.html">"Logic and
Magic"</a>). The formula presented in the <i>Tractatus</i> failed to do its job not because it was poorly
constructed but because <i>there was no such
job to do</i>. The problem, therefore, lay not so much with theory expressed as
with the background assumptions which committed the young Wittgenstein to a
particular way of seeing things. The <i>Tractatus</i>
was merely an attempt to systematically work through the implications of those
assumptions. They themselves went unquestioned – indeed, it never even occurred
to him that they might be problematic (cf §308: “The decisive movement in
the conjuring trick has been made, and it was the very one that seemed to us
quite innocent”). This attempt to dig beneath the surface of an argument and locate
the crucial difficulty at deeper level is entirely characteristic of the <i>Philosophical Investigations</i>. I mentioned
at the start that Wittgenstein doesn’t tackle a big “sexy” issue in §134.
In fact, he never directly does. For him, the problem lies not so much with
what (eg) Empiricists and Rationalists argue about as with the assumptions that
neither side question. Those assumptions are his real target. But so far he has
barely scratched the surface.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
<u>Postscript: translating “Es
verhält sich so und so”<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
I think there are problems with
the translation of “Es verhält sich so und so”. For one thing, it’s irritating
that the <i>Investigations</i> and the two
major English translations of the <i>Tractatus</i>
each offer a different version. Ogden’s 1922 translation of the <i>Tractatus</i> gives us “Such and such is the
case”; then Anscombe’s 1953 translation of the <i>Investigations</i> gives us “This is how things are” (retained in all
subsequent editions); and then the 1961 Pears/McGuiness <i>Tractatus</i> gives us “This is how things stand”. (Duncan Richter’s <a href="http://www.academia.edu/758586/Wittgensteins_Tractatus_A_Students">2009
student edition</a> provides a fourth variation: “Things are thus and so”.) <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
I’m not saying that any one of
those is wrong, but at the very least the diversity creates issues for English-language
readers which don’t exist in the original German. For one thing it means that
if you come to the <i>Investigations</i>
already familiar with the <i>Tractatus</i> you’ll
be wrong-footed by the new rendering. I imagine that it’s easy for someone used
to Ogden’s <i>Tractatus</i> to completely
miss the reference in §134. On the other hand, those who’ve read Pears/McGuiness will
get the reference but be irritated by the (frankly) pointless switch from
“stand” to “are”. (Though of course Anscombe’s “are” came before
Pears/McGuiness’ “stand” – was the change due to a copyright issue? It would be
a shame to think so.) Either way, it dilutes the <i>Investigations</i> on an aesthetic level. For when Wittgenstein opened §134
with “Betrachten wir den Satz: “Es verhält sich so und so” he surely assumed
that his readers would be familiar with the <i>Tractatus</i>
and that their ears would prick up at the mention of this famous phrase. But if
there’s no agreement as to what that “famous phrase” actually <i>was</i> then everyone’s ears are going to remain
firmly in the “down” position.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
It’s also important to realise
that the different translations have philosophical implications. For example,
it puzzled me for a long time that (in Anscombe’s translation) §134 claims
“This is how things are” is used as a <i>schema</i>.
You can just about see what this is getting at, but really that’s <i>not</i> the most obvious use suggested by
the phrase. It more commonly functions as a prefix to a statement, and implies
that the speaker is cutting to the heart of the issue. So someone might say “This
is how things are: unless we can raise £5,000 by midnight we’ll lose the house”.
For the phrase to work as a schema you have to imagine a strong emphasis on “this”,
together (perhaps) with a hand-gesture suggesting the various things to which “this”
refers. So it would be “<i>This</i> […] is
how things are” with the gesture providing the “[…]”. That’s a bit of a stretch
and, in any case, it seems to me that it’s now the gesture which is doing the
schematic work rather than the actual words. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
Of course, if you substitute (eg)
“Things are thus and so” then the schematic aspect becomes much more obvious. (Mind
you, I can’t help reflecting that English already has a well-established verbal
schematic, namely: “blah, blah, blah”. I suppose it might’ve caused uproar if
TLP 4.5 had stated “The general form of the proposition is: Blah, blah, blah”.)
The problem with the “thus and so” version (so far as I can see) is that it
doesn’t capture the declarative nature of propositions as strongly as “This is
how things are”. This is an important element because it stresses the
truth-functional nature of propositions. If I utter the words “the cat sat on
the mat” merely because I like their sound then there’s no question of me being
right or wrong. But if I <i>assert</i> that
the cat sat on the mat then that’s either true or false. For this reason, I
find it more useful to bear in mind Anscombe’s version when considering §136,
which discusses the link between propositions and truth-functionality.<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
Having said that, it’s not as
if the assertive element is <i>absent</i>
from “Things are thus and so”; it’s merely less emphatic (because the “are”
comes in the middle of the sentence rather than at the end). All in all I find “Things
are thus and so” to be closer to the original (I also prefer it to Ogden’s “Such
and such is the case”). I wonder why Anscombe changed Ogden’s version, why
Pears/McGuiness pointlessly varied Anscombe’s version and why the Hacker/Schulte
4<sup>th</sup> Edition of the <i>Investigations</i>
stuck to Anscombe’s version even though Hacker clearly has issues with the
wording and suggests “Things are thus and so” as a more helpful alternative (see
<i>Wittgenstein: Understanding and Meaning</i>,
chapter XVI). I’d be interested to hear any views on the subject.<o:p></o:p></div>
Philip Cartwrighthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11458571502536123264noreply@blogger.com10tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6701420428167031490.post-91802752730659070752013-05-29T16:56:00.002+01:002013-05-29T16:56:40.993+01:0010,000 Page Views and Counting...I have very little idea who reads this blog, but I'm grateful to you all, especially as my figures recently passed the 10,000 milestone. To celebrate, I've written a <a href="http://cartwrightphilip.wordpress.com/2013/05/29/campaign-for-world-domination-progress-report/" target="_blank">quick and dirty analysis of my site stats</a> which I've posted on my Scribbled in the Margin blog. (I didn't put it here because it's not about the <i>Investigations</i> - but there again neither is this post, so, um... er....)<br />
<br />
Anyway, I'm half-way through a post about Wittgenstein's discussion of the logical form of the proposition, which I hope to put up in a couple of days. Bet you can't wait!Philip Cartwrighthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11458571502536123264noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6701420428167031490.post-66184510071038385062013-03-14T16:48:00.002+00:002013-03-14T16:48:47.472+00:00A Wanderer ReturnsGood news, everybody (as Dr Farnsworth would say)! After a lengthy absence Paul Johnston (author of "Wittgenstein and Moral Philosophy", among other works) is back blogging about Wittgenstein. His new post is <a href="http://www.wisdomnspire.com/wittgenstein/the-lightning-speed-of-thought" target="_blank">The Lightning Speed of Thought</a>. Well worth a look, as always.Philip Cartwrighthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11458571502536123264noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6701420428167031490.post-35455842746119606752013-03-04T20:40:00.000+00:002013-03-04T20:40:13.295+00:00Meaning is Use Part 3: Questions and Answers<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 150%;">I
ended </span><a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.co.uk/2011/10/meaning-is-use-part-i-argument.html" style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 150%;">Meaning
is Use Part 1</a><span style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 150%;"> with the following questions about §43:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial;">Why […] has
Wittgenstein suddenly moved from what meaning is (or isn’t) to how the
word “meaning” is explained?<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial;">What is the
implication of the caveat “though not for <i>all</i>”?<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="3" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial;">What are we
supposed to make of the second paragraph (§43b)?<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="4" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial;">In what sense (if <i>any</i>) does Wittgenstein actually say
that meaning is use?<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: Arial;">I
dealt with (2) as best as I could in <a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.co.uk/2012/04/meaning-is-use-part-2-caveat-and.html">Meaning
is Use Part 2</a>. Here I’ll take (1) and (4) together, as I think they’re
connected. But I’ll start with (3), if only to get it out of the way.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<u><span style="font-family: Arial;">3.
What are we supposed to make of the second paragraph of §43?<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: Arial;">§43b
states that “[…] the <i>meaning</i> of a
name is sometimes explained by pointing to its <i>bearer</i>”. This is potentially troubling because in §40 Wittgenstein
expressly warns us against confusing the <i>meaning</i>
of a name with its <i>bearer</i>. Explaining
the former by pointing to the latter might seem to go against this warning.
After all, when we point to someone and say “This is Jones” surely we are
explaining who the bearer of “Jones” is rather than the meaning of the word
“Jones”?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: Arial;">This
is correct so far as it goes, but there are three points worth considering.
First, meaning is use and pointing to the bearer does sometimes provide
information on how to use a name. Suppose for example I’ve been describing
Jones to someone who’s never met him. Now Jones walks in and I say, “This </span><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3"; mso-ascii-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Arial; mso-symbol-font-family: "Wingdings 3";">â</span><span style="font-family: Webdings; mso-ascii-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Arial; mso-symbol-font-family: Webdings;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial;">is Jones“. Previously, the other person could use the
name up to a point; he could list the qualities I’d mentioned, say that he’d
been told about Jones, etc. Now, however, he can also use “Jones” in a range of
new ways: he can call to him, point him out to other people, etc, etc. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: Arial;">Still,
it’s tempting to argue that I haven’t really explained the <i>meaning</i> of “Jones”; I’ve simply pointed out <i>who</i> Jones is. I’d agree that this is not a <i>typical</i> example of explaining meaning – but isn’t that blinding us
to how things work in <i>this</i> type of
case? It’s true that if I talk about my car and later, in the driveway, say
“that’s my car” this wouldn’t be taken as an explanation of the word “car”. But
such words do not function like proper nouns. I can define “car” by pointing to
various examples and then, hopefully, my pupil will be able to identify further
examples on sight. But I cannot point to a number of people called Jones and
now expect my pupil to recognise anyone else with that name. The meaning of
“Jones” <i>as a proper noun</i> entails
specific definitions as well as the more general one that most readily comes to
mind when we think of explaining meaning.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: Arial;">There’s
a clear similarity here with the ostensive definition of objects discussed <a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.co.uk/2012/04/meaning-is-use-part-2-caveat-and.html">previously</a>,
and this leads to the second point: it’s not obvious that “name” in §43
exclusively refers to <i>proper</i> names. We
often talk of naming objects (“can you name the different instruments in the
woodwind section?”) and in §15 Wittgenstein points out that “naming something
is rather like attaching a name tag to a thing”. If “name” in §43b is being
used in this more general sense then Wittgenstein is simply reminding us of the
function of ostensive definition in explaining use.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: Arial;">Thirdly,
there are occasions when we explain ostensively that a word <i>is</i> a proper name. For example, I tell
someone “Fetch me Kleb”. My friend looks puzzled and asks what on earth “kleb”
is. I point to someone on the other side of the room saying “Him </span><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3"; mso-ascii-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Arial; mso-symbol-font-family: "Wingdings 3";">â</span><span style="font-family: Webdings; mso-ascii-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Arial; mso-symbol-font-family: Webdings;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial;">! Kleb!” Here we have a two-fold instruction in the
use of the word: (a) it is to be used as a proper name rather than the name of
a thing; and (b) it is to be used as such in connection with a particular
person who has been identified as its bearer.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: Arial;">I
think I’ll leave this question now. It’s not of primary importance, but it does
highlight the variety of practices which might be classified as explaining
meaning (and the fact that it’s not always easy to decide if a particular
practice falls under this heading is itself a rather Wittgensteinian
observation). Indeed, surely Wittgenstein’s point in §43b is to draw our
attention to this variety. As ever we should avoid thinking dogmatically – look
and see!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b><i><span style="font-family: Arial;">¶<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<u><span style="font-family: Arial;">1.
Why has Wittgenstein suddenly moved from what meaning is (or isn’t) to how the
word “meaning” is explained?<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<u><span style="font-family: Arial;">4.
In what sense (if any) does Wittgenstein actually say that meaning is use?<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: Arial;">Until
§43, Wittgenstein’s argument has mainly been negative. He’s analysed potential
candidates for meaning – in particular the claim that meaning is the object signified
– and pointed out the incoherence of such ideas. But just when we might expect
him to produce his own candidate he shifts the debate away from <i>identity</i> and focuses instead upon how
meaning is <i>explained</i> (ie, how the
word “meaning” is used). This is not, however, some kind of dodge. Rather,
Wittgenstein is suggesting that the very search for a candidate is itself
misconceived. He sets out this idea clearly at the beginning of <i>The Blue Book</i>:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial;">The question "What is length?", "What
is meaning?", "What is the number one?" etc., produce in us a
mental cramp. We feel that we can't point to anything in reply to them and yet
ought to point to something. (We are up against one of the great sources of
philosophical bewilderment: a substantive makes us look for a thing that
corresponds to it.)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial;">Asking first "What is an explanation of meaning?"
has two advantages. You in a sense bring the question "what is
meaning" down to earth. For, surely, to understand the meaning of
"meaning" you ought also to understand the meaning of
"explanation of meaning". Roughly: "let's ask what the explanation
of meaning is, for whatever that explains will be the meaning." Studying
the grammar of the expression "expression of meaning" will teach you
something about the grammar of the word "meaning" and will cure you
of the temptation to look about you for some object which you might call
"the meaning".<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: Arial;">It
is worth dwelling for a moment on the temptation Wittgenstein mentions here,
for it is an important source not just of “philosophical bewilderment” but also
of philosophical <i>theories</i>. The search
for substantives is the search for metaphysical essence. It lies behind the
notion of Platonic forms; Cartesian dualism; the mind/brain identity of
reductionists such as Putnam; and Kripke’s theory of natural kinds,
rigid-designators, etc. But all of this is, according to Wittgenstein, deeply
misguided. Yet it is also extremely tempting. The very question “what is the
meaning of a word?” suggests that there is some <i>thing</i> which <i>is</i> the
meaning. The form of the question locks us into a particular way of considering
the issue. Moreover, we feel we ought to be able to answer it (after all,
surely we know what <i>meaning</i> is, don’t
we?) and so we <i>bethink</i> ourselves. We
attempt to use reason to discover how things <i>must</i> be. In other words, we search for a metaphysical theory. But
this, for Wittgenstein, is tantamount to <i>guessing</i>
how the word “meaning” <i>works</i>. And as
he later remarks, “One cannot guess how a word functions. One has to look at
its application and learn from that” (§340).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: Arial;">And
it is precisely this looking which informs Wittgenstein’s shift of emphasis in
§43. Instead of producing a theory he concentrates on how “meaning” is
explained. To put it another way, he describes how the word “meaning” is used
and sums things up with the general observation that the explanation of meaning
(usually) involves explaining the use of the word whose meaning is unclear.
Explaining the meaning of (eg) “apple” or “chair” might well involve pointing
to actual apples or chairs as typical examples of the word under consideration
(though it need not). But that doesn’t happen when explaining the meaning of
“meaning” because, unlike “apple” or “chair” the word doesn’t name a
substantive – not a physical one, nor a mental one, nor an ideal one. That’s
why Wittgenstein doesn’t produce his own candidate for meaning. In this sense,
there is <i>nothing</i> that meaning “is”.
It is a word we use in particular ways in certain contexts. And that’s the end
of it.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: Arial;">This,
of course, is an example of Wittgenstein’s <a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.co.uk/2011/09/wittgensteins-new-philosophy-no-theory.html">descriptive
method of philosophy</a>. Sixty-six sections before he announces “we may not
advance any kind of theory [….] All <i>explanation</i>
must disappear and description alone must take its place” (§109) he has already
provided a practical demonstration of why he considered philosophical
theorising to be barren and how, instead, a careful description of the relevant
terms could bring things “down to earth” and release us from our mental cramp –
not by <i>solving</i> the problem which
troubled us, but by revealing it to be an <i>illusion</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: Arial;">This
is not the last time meaning will be discussed on this blog. I’m aware that so
far I’ve hardly touched upon a hugely important and intuitively persuasive
notion connected with the topic. Some of you may be impatiently asking
yourselves “But what about <i>the mind</i>?”
Isn’t saying a word with meaning (as opposed to just uttering inarticulate
noises) a <i>mental</i> act? Indeed, doesn’t
meaning itself consist of mental images (or ideas) put into words?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">For
Wittgenstein the answer is no and no. But discussion of the issue comes later.</span>Philip Cartwrighthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11458571502536123264noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6701420428167031490.post-68665904803845211332013-01-13T20:47:00.002+00:002013-01-13T20:47:13.597+00:00UpdateJust a quick note to say I'm still around and to apologise for not updating this blog for so long. I haven't abandoned it! But what little time I get for philosophy has been hijacked recently by trying to set out my thoughts on a Wittgensteinian approach to the "religion vrs science" debate. It's a huge, complex area (but very interesting too) and I have over a hundred pages of notes that I must somehow fashion into a coherent whole.<br />
<br />
I won't be presenting the results of that work here; although it's closely bound up with Wittgenstein's philosophy it isn't directly connected to explaining the <i>Philosophical Investigations</i>. Instead, I've set up a new blog, <a href="http://cartwrightphilip.wordpress.com/" target="_blank">Scribbled in the Margin</a>. The religion/science stuff will appear there, along with posts on various other subjects. I've already published a few - take a look if you get the chance.<br />
<br />
Like I say, I will definitely be returning to this blog at some stage. I've managed to do a little bit of work on rule-following, which is the next major topic to confront (although first there's that curious little discussion on the general form of propositions), and will write it up when I get the chance. So watch this space!<br />
<br />
PhilPhilip Cartwrighthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11458571502536123264noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6701420428167031490.post-84939849191611071642012-04-05T09:56:00.001+01:002013-03-18T17:47:48.838+00:00Meaning is Use Part 2: the Caveat and Ostensive Definition<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.co.uk/2011/10/meaning-is-use-part-i-argument.html" target="_blank">As you may recall</a>, while considering Wittgenstein’s linking of meaning to use I’ve been fretting about the caveat he introduces in §43:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial;">For a <i>large</i> class of cases of the employment of the word “meaning” – though not for <i>all</i> – this word can be explained in this way: the meaning of a word is its use in the language.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: Arial;">This seems to suggest that for some words their meaning is <i>not</i> their use. But which types of word does Wittgenstein have in mind, and what actually <i>is</i> their meaning if it isn’t their use?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: Arial;">One possibility (which I’ve certainly found tempting) runs as follows: for abstract nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc, the meaning is their use. For <i>concrete</i> nouns, however, meaning is more straightforwardly connected to the objects named. The meaning, in other words, is the object. Why is this distinction tempting? Because when asked for the meaning of a word like “love” we can’t point to the <i>thing itself</i> and so fall back on descriptions of use, synonyms, etc. But with a concrete noun such as “apple” we can simply point to an example and say “<i>This</i> </span><span style="font-family: 'bu Handy Dings'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">q</span><span style="font-family: Arial;"> </span><span style="color: lime; font-family: 'KR Apple A Day'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">b</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">”. This method (known as “ostensive definition”) seems clear and exact, and yet doesn’t involve an explanation of use. After all, “This </span><span style="font-family: 'bu Handy Dings'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">q</span><span style="font-family: Arial;"> </span><span style="color: lime; font-family: 'KR Apple A Day'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">b</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">” would be a perfectly good answer to “What does the word ‘apple’ mean?” but not to “How is the word ‘apple’ used?”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: Arial;">At this point the clarity and exactness of ostensive definition might tempt us to go further and claim it provides a <i>foundation</i> for meaning. Descriptive definition looks vague by comparison and always seems open to misinterpretation. True, we might clarify it with a further description, but won’t that also be vague? So our clarification itself requires a clarification, and now we’re in danger of falling into a regress. As the interlocutor puts it in §87: “how does an explanation help me to understand, if, after all, it is not the final one? In that case the explanation is never completed; so I still don’t understand what he means, and never shall!” The very <i>possibility</i> of meaning seems to require an escape from this regress, and ostensive definition looks like a promising solution.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: Arial;">If it is to play this role then we can identify three connected conditions that ostensive definition must satisfy:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 54.0pt; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial;">i.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial;">It must be <u>fundamental</u>. Descriptions of meaning might be analysed into a series of ostensive definitions, but such definitions can themselves neither have nor need any further analysis. After all, if an ostensive definition requires further explanation presumably this will take the form of a description and we’re back with the problem of a regress. Ostensive definition must be the end of the line.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 54.0pt; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial;">ii.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial;">It must be <u>complete</u>. If ostensive definition doesn’t provide the <i>whole</i> meaning of a word then it leaves some aspects undecided and therefore meaning is not clear. In that case the definition would not be fundamental. To put it another way, if the object <i>is</i> the meaning and ostensive definition picks out the object then it <i>must</i> also pick out the meaning. All of it.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 54.0pt; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial;">iii.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial;">It must be <u>unambiguous</u>. If the connection established between word and object isn’t completely clear then doubt as to meaning is still possible. Once again, further support is needed and so a foundation has not been provided.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">At this point we have arrived at what might be called a <i>mythology</i> of ostensive definition. Puzzlement over certain aspects of meaning has led us, step by step, to a theory about what must be the case – in other words, a <i>metaphysical</i> theory. (It is also worth noting how this theory threatens to pull the whole of language into its gravitational field. It was introduced to explain the meaning of concrete nouns, but surely other types of word need a definite meaning too? And if definite meaning cannot be provided by description then an alternative is just as necessary for “love” as for “apple”). Not surprisingly, Wittgenstein is critical of this mythology and (characteristically) he attacks it on two fronts: from the inside, by demonstrating that – on its own terms – it cannot provide an unassailable foundation for meaning; and, from the outside, by contrasting the mythology with a description of the diverse but more modest role ostensive definition actually plays in our lives.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">At §28 Wittgenstein imagines ostensively defining “two” by pointing at two nuts. The interlocutor objects that such a definition is inadequate because it is open to misinterpretation: “he will suppose that ‘two’ is the name given to <i>this</i> group of nuts!” Wittgenstein’s reply turns the tables: “he might equally well take a person’s name, which I explain ostensively, as that of a colour, of a race, or even of a point of the compass. That is to say, an ostensive definition can be variously interpreted in <i>any</i> case.” The potential pitfalls that accompany the ostensive definition of abstract terms are – from a logical standpoint – equally pressing in the case of concrete nouns. This simple observation threatens to unravel the whole mythology at a stroke: if a mistake is <i>always</i> possible then ostensive definition is <i>never</i> unambiguous. And if that’s true then it isn’t complete either, for something else is needed to ensure that the correct meaning is grasped on each occasion. And if it’s neither unambiguous nor complete then it can hardly be called fundamental. What seemed so clear and secure is in danger of falling to pieces before our eyes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">At §33 the interlocutor attempts to patch up the damage: “one need only – obviously – know (or guess) what the person giving the explanation is pointing at.” The idea is that the gesture’s intended target (colour, shape, etc) is contained within the act itself – perhaps via a mental state reflected in a characteristic form of behaviour (eg, pointing or gazing in a particular way). By observing the behaviour we can infer the mental state and, therefore, grasp the meaning. In this way everything is kept “in-house” and, needing no external support, ostensive definition retains its fundamental status. This picture of “inner” meaning inferred from “outer” behaviour is one Wittgenstein confronts on numerous occasions in the Investigations. For the moment, however, he restricts himself to some brief, but significant, observations: “… neither the expression ‘to mean the explanation in such-and-such a way’ nor the expression ‘to interpret the explanation in such-and-such a way’ signifies a process which accompanies the giving and hearing of an explanation” (PI §34). Why not? Because “even if something of the sort [ie, a characteristic experience of pointing] did recur in all cases, it would still depend on the circumstances – that is, on what happened before and after the pointing – whether we would say ‘He pointed at the shape and not at the colour’.” (PI §35).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">It is important to note here that Wittgenstein is <i>not</i> denying the existence of mental experiences accompanying instances of meaning or understanding. Nor, indeed, is he denying that such experiences play an important role in allowing us to use language the way we do. What he is pointing out is that the rules governing the correct application of concepts like “meaning” and “understanding” do <i>not</i> hinge upon the identification of mental experiences (or states or processes). If I point at various red objects saying “red” each time and you then consistently pick out red objects when asked to do so, you have correctly understood my meaning. That is how “correct understanding” is defined in such cases. This is not a claim about brain functions or psychological processes (which would be empirical claims requiring scientific investigation). It is a fact about the grammar of the concepts “meaning”, “understanding” and “correct”. <i>From this point of view</i>, your opinion about what was going through my mind when I gave the definition “Red </span><span style="font-family: 'bu Handy Dings'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">q</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="color: red; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">n</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">” </span><span style="font-family: Arial;">is neither here nor there. And, likewise, my opinion about your mental state when you correctly followed the order “pick out the red object” is irrelevant. Furthermore, <i>my</i> mental state when saying “Red </span><span style="font-family: 'bu Handy Dings'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">q</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="color: red; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">n</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">” </span><span style="font-family: Arial;">is not the criterion for correctly defining “red”. And <i>your</i> mental state when picking out red objects is not the criterion for understanding the order “pick out the red object”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">Ostensive definition fails to operate in its assumed role as the unmistakable, stand-alone foundation for meaning. And yet it <i>does</i> operate – we use it all the time. Clearly, then, it has merit outside of any metaphysical function we may assign it. This brings us to Wittgenstein’s description of the role ostensive definition plays in our lives. It is a relatively brief passage, stretching from §§27-32 (though §6 and §10 should also be borne in mind), but several points emerge.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">First (§27), requesting and receiving ostensive definitions is a language-game we learn along with the rest of our linguistic activity. We do not simply drum the names of objects into children’s heads and leave them to it (“As if what we did next were given with the mere act of naming”); we also use the words <i>in situ</i>, even before a child is in any position to understand what we are saying. So rather than being the fundamental building-block of language, ostensive definition is just one element among many and only functions as a definition within this wider context.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">Secondly, it is more varied in subject-matter than the mythology might suggest. At §28 Wittgenstein lists some examples and, far from being confined to concrete nouns, they include colour-words, number-words and points of the compass. This is the upside of the fact that all definitions are open to misinterpretation; once the myth of unambiguousness is removed the key question changes from "can I point to something?" to "will he apply the definition correctly?" It’s then possible to ostensibly define even subtle, abstract words like "otiose" by (eg) showing a series of texts and underlining the redundant clauses: "The batchelor was <u>unmarried</u>", "He played patience <u>by himself</u>", "√25=5<u>+0.0r</u>", etc. Maybe the pupil will understand, maybe she won’t; the general success-rate defines the method’s usefulness.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">Here (thirdly) we start to see how not just the subject-matter but also the form of ostensive definitions may be varied, and how there is not always a clear distinction between ostensive and descriptive methods. The “otiose” example is itself close to being an idiosyncratic type of description; it is certainly a long way away from “Apple </span><span style="font-family: 'bu Handy Dings'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">q</span><span style="font-family: Arial;"> </span><span style="color: lime; font-family: 'KR Apple A Day'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">b</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">”, and could easily be recast into descriptive form. A similar point applies to written lists with the form "[x] signifies [y]". These are a variation of ostensive definition yet Wittgenstein calls them an abbreviated description of use (§10). Why abbreviated? Because they take for granted the wider context in which the defined word operates. In effect, “Apple </span><span style="font-family: 'bu Handy Dings'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">q</span><span style="font-family: Arial;"> </span><span style="color: lime; font-family: 'KR Apple A Day'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">b</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">” is (usually) a shorthand for something like “Use the word ‘apple’ to refer to the type of fruit of which this </span><span style="font-family: 'bu Handy Dings'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">q</span><span style="font-family: Arial;"> </span><span style="color: lime; font-family: 'KR Apple A Day'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">b</span><span style="font-family: Arial;"> is a typical example”. We don’t often give such long-winded explanations because the context of asking generally renders them unnecessary. Forgetting this can make it seem as if everything was done by the ostensive act itself whereas, in fact, even what is defined depends on the context. Consider the following cases:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial;">I have deduced the rules of chess by watching the game but without hearing any talk about it (I need not even know that it’s called chess). Now I start playing and during the game my opponent says “Your king is exposed.” I ask, “What do you mean by ‘king’?” And he replies “This </span><span style="font-family: 'bu Handy Dings'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">q</span><span style="font-family: 'Chess Alpha 2'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">è</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">.” <o:p></o:p></span></li>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial;">I have learnt chess on a computer using a 2-D board where the symbol for the king is the letter “K” in a circle (I know that this is called the king). Now I’m introduced to a standard wooden chess set and I ask “Which is the king?” My opponent replies: “This </span><span style="font-family: 'bu Handy Dings'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">q</span><span style="font-family: 'Chess Alpha 2'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">è</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">.”<o:p></o:p></span></li>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial;">I know nothing at all about chess. My friend is setting up the boards for a chess club meeting and notices one set has a piece missing. He tells me to fetch a spare king from the cupboard. I ask “What do you mean by king?” And he replies: “This </span><span style="font-family: 'bu Handy Dings'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">q</span><span style="font-family: 'Chess Alpha 2'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">è</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">.”<o:p></o:p></span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">In each case the meaning explained is different. In (i) it could be expressed as: “The piece that looks like this </span><span style="font-family: 'bu Handy Dings'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">q</span><span style="font-family: 'Chess Alpha 2'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">è</span><span style="font-family: Arial;"> and moves in such-and-such a way is called the king.” In (ii) as: “The piece called the king, which moves in such-and-such a way, looks like this </span><span style="font-family: 'bu Handy Dings'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">q</span><span style="font-family: 'Chess Alpha 2'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">è</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">.” And in (iii) as: “The object that looks like this </span><span style="font-family: 'bu Handy Dings'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">q</span><span style="font-family: 'Chess Alpha 2'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">è</span><span style="font-family: Arial;"> is called a king.” But now suppose you give the definition “King </span><span style="font-family: 'bu Handy Dings'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">q</span><span style="font-family: 'Chess Alpha 2'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">è</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">“ to someone who not only knows nothing about chess, but has never even encountered board games or any activity involving <i>pieces</i>. What, exactly, have you achieved with your definition? At most (it seems to me) you have alerted the pupil to the fact that there is some sort of connection between something about the object and the word “king”. That hardly seems to count as a <i>definition</i> at all.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">Of course “the king in chess” is a relatively sophisticated concept, but even at the level of apples or pebbles similar considerations apply. The ostensive definition “Apple </span><span style="font-family: 'bu Handy Dings'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">q</span><span style="font-family: Arial;"> </span><span style="color: lime; font-family: 'KR Apple A Day'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">b</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">” <i>qua definition</i> presupposes some level of linguistic competence: (eg) a familiarity with the language-game of asking for, and being given, the names of physical objects, and the way in which such names are subsequently used. This competence is so basic it is easy to overlook it entirely and assume the function of the definition is somehow built into the act itself. It will then appear as if the mere performance of an ostensive definition was enough to guarantee its success.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">It seemed we had two entirely separate types of definition: ostensive and descriptive. Of these two, ostensive definition appeared fundamental, unambiguous and complete. Description, on the other hand, was distinctly second-best; it was what we made do with when we couldn't define a word ostensively. But this assessment turned out to be founded on an inability to look clearly at how ostensive definition functioned in practice. Once we had done this, a quite different picture emerged. Ostensive definition was neither complete, unambiguous nor fundamental. It was not even <i>entirely</i> distinct from description. Instead, it was simply one technique amongst many, extremely useful in some contexts, less so in others. Its privileged status was a chimera, because language is not founded in unambiguous definitions, but in <i>application</i> - that is to say, in human behavior.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">Obviously this spells trouble for my initial suggestion that ostensive definition might be an example of a “use-free” explanation of meaning suggested by §43. Ostensive definition only appeared use-free when considered in isolation – as a fundamental, stand-alone performance requiring no context or outside factors to give it meaning. Viewed in that light, it may well not involve use, but it doesn’t function as a definition either. As soon as context is reintroduced, the question of use inevitably follows in its wake. Take, for example, my earlier point that “This </span><span style="font-family: 'bu Handy Dings'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">q</span><span style="font-family: Arial;"> </span><span style="color: lime; font-family: 'KR Apple A Day'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">b</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">” would be a strange reply to the question “How is the world ‘apple’ used?” It isn’t actually difficult to imagine a context in which that reply would be more or less helpful. For example, I use the word “apple” in a sentence but my friend is unsure whether I mean the fruit or the increasingly evil technology company. He asks “How were you using ‘apple’ just then?” His question alerts me to the ambiguity of my statement (ie, I understand his confusion), and I clarify matters by saying “This </span><span style="font-family: 'bu Handy Dings'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">q</span><span style="font-family: Arial;"> </span><span style="color: lime; font-family: 'KR Apple A Day'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">b</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">”. True, this is still idiosyncratic, but it gets the job done and only requires a little tweaking to provide it with a more conventional form: “I was using it to mean the fruit. <i>This</i> </span><span style="font-family: 'bu Handy Dings'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">q</span><span style="font-family: Arial;"> </span><span style="color: lime; font-family: 'KR Apple A Day'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">b</span><span style="font-family: Arial;"> for example”. Once again, it becomes apparent that the ostensive act is a context-dependent distillation of description. There is no getting away from it: ostensive definition is up to its neck in use.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">But in that case what about the caveat? Are there any remaining candidates for words whose meaning is not their use? At this point I must confess that I think I've made a grade-A, bone-headed blunder. Allow me to explain.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">One of my difficulties with §43 is that I find the Hacker/Schulte translation rather torturously phrased. Its meaning keeps slipping away from me as I read it over and over. With this in mind, I recently checked it against Anscombe's original version. This is what I found:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">For a large class of cases - though not for all - in which we employ the word "meaning" it can be defined thus: the meaning of a word is its use in the language.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">PI §43, Third Edition<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">I can’t say whether the third or fourth edition best captures Wittgenstein’s style, but the third edition’s rendering of §43 seems admirably clear. More importantly, it at once suggested an obvious point which I had previously ignored: the cases in which we employ the word “meaning” include numerous ones that are not about the <i>use</i> of words for the simple reason that they are not about <i>words</i> at all. A few examples:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">“What was the meaning of that look you gave me?”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">“What is the meaning of that tattoo on your arm?”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">“What does the opening of Beethoven’s 5<sup>th</sup> symphony mean?”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">“What is the meaning of all this noise?!”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">“What is the meaning of life?”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">I had been treating meaning as a kind of mechanism that only worked in one particular way and was exclusively related to the phenomenon of language. But it now seems to me that at least one reason for the caveat is to warn us against such a narrowly restricted focus. “Meaning” is a diffuse concept, connected to use, synonymy and definition, but also to significance and aptness. Keeping this diversity in mind is, for Wittgenstein, a way of avoiding being trapped by a particular picture – for example, “The object is the meaning of the word”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">Can we now therefore sum up §43 along the following lines: “insofar as meaning is concerned with words, it is concerned with their use”? Even this, I think, would be going too far. Consider the following exchange:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">“I have called my new shop ‘Tesco’.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">“What does that mean?”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">“It’s a combination of ‘T.E. Stockwell’ and my name, ‘Cohen’.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">Or how about this: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">“<i>Kummerspeck</i> is the German word for weight-gain due to emotional overeating. It literally means ‘grief bacon’.” <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">Words, just as much as looks or musical phrases, can have a meaning over and above their use. The complexity of the concept “meaning” defies reduction to a simple formula, and so we’re thrown back upon broad generalisations such as “much of the time meaning is about use”. And that, of course, is simply a paraphrase of §43.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">Are these examples the sort of thing Wittgenstein has in mind when he introduces the caveat into §43? Are there not perhaps other, more pertinent, cases that I’ve overlooked? In a way these questions miss the point. The key thing is to recognise the complexity of the phenomenon at hand and to describe it accurately <i>despite</i> the urge to boil things down to a satisfying but misrepresentative formula. Or, as Wittgenstein puts it, “Say what you please, so long as it does not prevent you from seeing how things are. (And when you see that, there will be some things that you won’t say.)” PI §79.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><a href="http://lwpi.blogspot.co.uk/2013/03/meaning-is-use-part-3-questions-and.html" target="_blank">Meaning is Use Part 3</a></span></div>
Philip Cartwrighthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11458571502536123264noreply@blogger.com20tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6701420428167031490.post-48342319405303559392012-02-15T10:12:00.001+00:002012-02-15T10:14:14.970+00:00Update: How to Pronounce "Wittgenstein"It's taking me a bit longer to get used to the work routine than I figured, but I still hope to get back to the blog shortly. In the meantime, here's a helpful guide on pronouncing "Wittgenstein", as I know this troubles many of you.<br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><object class="BLOGGER-youtube-video" classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=6,0,40,0" data-thumbnail-src="http://0.gvt0.com/vi/WYzRP_WLwEQ/0.jpg" height="266" width="320"><param name="movie" value="http://www.youtube.com/v/WYzRP_WLwEQ&fs=1&source=uds" /><param name="bgcolor" value="#FFFFFF" /><embed width="320" height="266" src="http://www.youtube.com/v/WYzRP_WLwEQ&fs=1&source=uds" type="application/x-shockwave-flash"></embed></object></div>Philip Cartwrighthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11458571502536123264noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6701420428167031490.post-35139371122452327092011-11-17T09:50:00.000+00:002011-11-17T09:50:42.794+00:00WorkSorry for my prolonged silence. I recently started work after a lengthy spell of unemployment and the upheaval involved has left little time for philosophy. Hopefully, once I've adjusted to the new regime I'll be back on the case (albeit at a slower pace).<br />
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The job is exactly the sort of thing Wittgenstein would have approved of: factory-fodder. He was always advising his students to avoid academia and do something "useful" instead. This only goes to show that sometimes even the greatest minds can be a bit stupid.Philip Cartwrighthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11458571502536123264noreply@blogger.com4